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Alibis for the State? Producing Knowledge and Reproducing State Borders After the May 2008 ‘Xenophobic’ Attacks in South Africa

2012; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 17; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/14650045.2011.595438

1557-3028

Tamlyn Monson,

South African History and Culture

Abstract This paper examines the production of knowledge about the causes of the May 2008 attacks on foreign nationals in South Africa, embodied in state actors' recourse to discursive tropes of a 'third force' or mere 'criminality' in explaining the attacks. It explores the way in which this 'knowledge' reproduced statist notions of territory and power in the wake of a cataclysm that destabilised conventional notions of the congruence of nation, state and territory. The paper shows how official explanations of the attacks served both to camouflage the internal borders made visible by localised conflagrations and to reassert the state as the exclusive author of territorial borders. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the anonymous reviewers whose critical reflections on prior versions of this paper assisted in making it fit for publication. Thanks also to Prof. Loren B. Landau, Director of the African Centre for Migration and Society, whose comments in the final stages of revision helped me sharpen the argument. The remaining shortfalls are my own. Notes 1. SAPA, 'Pull Your Head Out of the Sand', Independent Online (IOL), 19 May 2008. 2. Simon Bekker, Ilse Eigelaar-Meets, Gary Eva, and Caroline Poole, Xenophobia and Violence in South Africa: A Desktop Study of the Trends and a Scan of Explanations Offered (Stellenbosch: University of Stellenbosch 2008) p. 46; Jean-Pierre Misago, Loren B. Landau, and Tamlyn Monson, Towards Tolerance, Law, and Dignity: Addressing Violence against Foreign Nationals in South Africa (Johannesburg: International Organization for Migration 2009) p. 22. 3. Misago, Landau, and Monson (note 2) pp. 33–34. 4. African Peer Review Mechanism, APRM Country Review Report No. 4: Country Review Report Republic of South Africa (Midrand: APR Secretariat 2007) p. 27. 5. Misago, Landau, and Monson (note 2) p. 2. 6. All four sentences in this description are derived from Bekker et al. (note 2) p. 46. 7. The government's slow response was criticised both by political parties and human rights organisations (Mail & Guardian, SAPA & AFP, 'Parties Slam Govt over Xenophobic Attacks', Mail & Guardian Online, 19 May 2008; SAPA/IOL, 'Rights Groups Slam "Slow" Government Response', IOL, 19 May 2008). 8. Noor Nieftagodien, 'Incoherent Responses to Crisis', 18 June 2008, available at . 9. The Minister of Safety and Security claimed the situation was not a crisis (Dickson Jere, 'Zim Exiles Face New Fear and Loathing in SA', Mail & Guardian Online, 14 May 2008), while the Minister of Home Affairs claimed victims of attacks would be reintegrated into communities within a week (Molaole Montsho, 'Criminals Fingered for Xenophobic Strife', Mail & Guardian Online, 15 May 2008). 10. Misago, Landau, and Monson (note 2) pp. 2, 48. 11. V. Igglesden, T. Monson, and T. Polzer, Humanitarian Assistance to Internally Displaced Persons in South Africa: Lessons Learned Following Attacks on Foreign Nationals in May 2008 (Johannesburg: Oxfam/Forced Migration Studies Programme 2009) p. 22. 12. SAP/IOL, '"The Situation Is Under Control"', IOL, 26 May 2008; IOL/AFP, 'Xenophobic Attacks Come with a Price...', Independent Online, 28 May 2008. 13. Mail & Guardian Online & SAPA, 'Govt: Refugee-Camp Reports "Not True"', Mail & Guardian Online, 28 May 2008. 14. Anne L. Clunan, 'Ungoverned Spaces: The Need for Reevaluation', in Anne L. Clunan and Harold A. Trinkunas (eds.), Ungoverned Spaces: Alternatives to State Authority in an Era of Softened Sovereignty (Stanford, CA: Stanford Security Studies 2010) p. 4. 15. Ibid., pp. 3–13. 16. M. Weber, 'Politics as a Vocation', in H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (eds.), From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (London: Kegan Paul 1948) p. 78. 17. Ibid., p. 78. 18. Aradhana Sharma and Akhil Gupta, 'Rethinking Theories of the State in an age of Globalization', in Aradhana Sharma and Akhil Gupta (eds.), The Anthropology of the State: A Reader (Malden: Blackwell 2006) p. 22. 19. R. H. Jackson and C. G. Rosberg, 'Why Africa's States Persist: The Empirical and the Juridical in statehood', World Politics 35 (1982) pp. 1–24; Michael I. Handel, Weak States in the International System (London: Frank Cass & Co 1990); Charles T. Call and Vanessa Wyeth (eds.), Building States to Build Peace (Colorado: Lynne Rienner 2008); Tozun Bahcheli, Barry Bartmann, and Henry Srebrnik (eds.), De Facto States: The Quest for Sovereignty (Abingdon: Routledge 2004). 20. Guillermo O'Donnell, 'On the State, Democratization and Some Conceptual Problems: A Latin American View with Glances at some Post-Communist Countries', World Development 21/8 (1993) pp. 1355–1369; S. D. Krasner, 'Abiding Sovereignty', International Political Science Review 22/3 (2001) pp. 229–251; Kees Koonings, 'Political Armies, Security Forces and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America', in Gavin Cawthra and Robin Luckham (eds.), Governing Insecurity: Democratic Control of Military and Security Establishments in Transitional Democracies (London: Zed Books 2003) pp. 124–151; Bahcheli, Bartmann, and Srebrnik (note 19). 21. Handel (note 19); D. Rothchild and J. W. Harbeson, 'Chapter One: The African State and State System in Flux', in D. Rothchild and J. W. Harbeson (eds.), Africa in World Politics: The African State System in Flux (Boulder: Westview 2000) pp. 3–23; Comfort Ero, 'Sierra Leone: The Legacies of Authoritarianism and Political Violence', in Gavin Cawthra and Robin Luckham (eds.).), Governing Insecurity: Democratic Control of Military and Security Establishments in Transitional Democracies (London: Zed Books 2003) pp. 232–253. 22. Kevin C. Dunn, 'MadLib #32: The (Blank) African State: Rethinking the Sovereign State in International Relations Theory', in K. C. Dunn and T. M. Shaw, Africa's Challenge to International Relations Theory (Houndmills: Palgrave 2001) pp. 44–63. 23. Michael Bratton, 'Building Democracy in Africa's Weak States', Democracy at Large 1/3 (2005), available at ; Carl Henrik Knutsen, 'Africa's Growth Tragedy Revisited: Weak States, Strong Rulers', GARNET Working Paper No: 71/09, Nov. 2009, available at ; Robert I. Rotberg, 'Failed States, Collapsed States, Weak States: Causes and Indicators', in Robert I. Rotberg (ed.), State Failure and State Weakness in a Time of Terror (Washington DC: Brookings Institution 2003). 24. Anne L. Clunan and Harold A. Trinkunas, 'Conceptualizing Ungoverned Spaces: Territorial Statehood, Contested Authority, and Softened Sovereignty', in Anne L. Clunan and Harold A. Trinkunas (eds.), Ungoverned Spaces: Alternatives to State Authority in an Era of Softened Sovereignty (Stanford, CA: Stanford Security Studies 2010) pp. 17–33. 25. Jack E. Spence, 'South Africa: The Great Exception', Chatham House, available at . 26. R. Mattes, 'Democracy Without the People?', Journal of Democracy 13/1 (2002) pp. 23, 29. 27. Michael Neocosmos, From 'Foreign Natives' to 'Native Foreigners': Explaining Xenophobia in Post-apartheid South Africa: Citizenship and Nationalism, Identity and Politics (Dakar: CODESRIA 2006) p. 125. Neocosmos's observation resonates with elements of Mahmood Mamdani's earlier critique of South African exceptionalism – see Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy Of Late Colonialism (Cape Town: David Philip 1996). 28. Michael Neocosmos, 'The Politics of Fear and the Fear of Politics: Reflections on Xenophobic Violence in South Africa', Journal of Asian and African Studies 43 (2008) p. 590. 29. Ibid., p. 590. 30. Ibid., p. 591. A similar observation is made by Loren B. Landau, 'The Meaning of Living in South Africa: Violence, Condemnation and community after 5–11', Migration studies Working Paper Series #39, July 2008, available at . 31. John Sharp, '"Fortress SA": Xenophobic violence in South Africa', Anthropology Today 24/4 (2008) p. 2. 32. Office of the Premier, Western Cape Provincial Government, 'Western Cape Premier Rasool Apologises for the Loss Of African Lives', 19 May 2008, available at . 33. Department of Sport, Arts and Culture, Free State Provincial Government, 'Speaking Notes of the Free State MEC for Sport, Arts and Culture, Mr Ace Magashule, on the Occasion of the Anti-Xenophobia Prayer Service, Welkom', 1 June 2008, available at . 34. Marius Bosch, 'Xenophobia Hurts Like Apartheid', Independent Online, 24 May 2008. 35. Department of Foreign Affairs, 'Radio and Television Address to the Nation by the President of South Africa, Thabo Mbeki, on the Occasion of Africa Day', 25 May 2008, available at . 36. For instance, see statements by provincial government representatives in Dolley, Caryn, 'Now Violence Hits Cape Town', Independent Online, 23 May 2008; Latorya Newman and Matthew Savides, 'We'd Rather Go Home, Say Refugees', Independent Online, 26 May 2008. 37. James C. Scott, 'The Trouble with the View from Above', Cato Unbound (Sept. 2008), available at . 38. As evidenced by the primacy South Africa has assigned to respect for the principle of sovereign equality when faced with rights violations in the international arena. 39. Ann Bernstein (ed.), 'Immigrants in Johannesburg: Estimating Numbers and Assessing Impacts', CDE In Depth 9 (Johannesburg: Centre for Development and Enterprise 2009) p. 15. 40. J. Crush (ed.), The Perfect Storm: The Realities of Xenophobia in Contemporary South Africa, Southern African Migration Project Migration Policy Series No. 50 (Cape Town & Kingston: IDASA & Queen's University 2008) p. 1. 41. See also Bekker et al (note 2) p. 28. 42. Among others, Home Affairs Minister Nosiviwe Mapisa-Nqakula suggested the involvement of a third force (SAPA/IOL, '"Third Force Could be Behind Violence"', Independent Online, 13 May 2008), as did Community Safety MEC Firoz Cachalia (SAPA/IOL, 'Police Have Evidence of Third Force – MEC, ' Independent Online, 20 May 2008), KwaZulu-Natal Safety and Security MEC Bheki Cele (SAPA/IOL, ''These Are Not Xenophobic Attacks'', Independent Online, 21 May 2008), Deputy Foreign Minister Aziz Pahad (Peter Fabricius, '"Third Force Behind Attacks"', The Cape Times, 21 May 2008, p. 1.), Gauteng ANC spokesperson Nkenke Kekana, and director general of the National Intelligence Agency Manala Manzini (Zodidi Mhlana, Niren Tolsi, and Sello S. Alcock, '"Third Force" Allegations Abound', Mail & Guardian Online, 23 May 2008. By the end of May, Intelligence Minister Ronnie Kasrils had begun to temper this discourse, attributing the violence to local tensions rather than a third force (Mandy Rossouw and Sello S. Alcock, 'Is a "Third Force" Involved?', Mail & Guardian Online, 1 June 2008. 43. Criminality and 'criminal elements' were blamed by Home Affairs Minister Nosiviwe Mapisa-Nqakula (Molaole Montsho, 'Criminals Fingered for Xenophobic Strife', Mail & Guardian Online, 15 May 2008); KwaZulu-Natal premier Sbu Ndebele (SAPA/IOL, '"Criminals Use Xenophobia"', Independent Online, 21 May 2008); Deputy Foreign Affairs Minister Aziz Pahad (SAPA, 'Mbeki to Discuss Attacks with Nigerian Counterpart', Independent Online, 2 June 2008); Deputy President Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka (SAPA/IFP, 'SA Apologises for Xenophobic Attacks', Independent Online, 23 May 2008); KwaZulu-Natal Safety and Security MEC Bheki Cele (SAPA, 'Which Is It Mr Cele?' Independent Online, 23 May 2008); and President Thabo Mbeki (IOL/SAPA, 'An Absolute Disgrace – Mbeki', Independent Online, 26 May 2008). 44. Boyd Webb, 'Third Force Blamed for Xenophobic Attacks', Pretoria News, 14 May 2008. 45. David Garland, 'The Limits of the Sovereign State: Strategies of Crime Control in Contemporary Society', British Journal of Criminology 36/4 (1996) p. 449. 46. Ibid., p. 448. 47. Rotberg (note 23) pp. 2–3. 48. G. Gifford, 'We're Back to Hell, Independent Online, 18 May 2008. 49. These details draw on a pre-existing database of xenophobic incidents and responses compiled from online media reporting: Tamlyn Monson (ed.), Forced Migration Studies Programme Database on Xenophobic Attacks in South Africa 2006–2009, Version 1, 9 Jan. 2009, entries 174 and 220. 50. Garland (note 45) p. 445. 51. Tamlyn Monson, Report on the SAHRC Investigation into Issues of Rule of Law, Justice and Impunity arising out of the 2008 Public Violence against Non-Nationals (Johannesburg: South African Human Rights Commission 2010), available at . 52. Bilkis Omar, 'Are the SAPS Coping with the Current Xenophobic Crisis?', undated (received from Duncan Breen, personal communication, 25 March 2009). 53. Misago, Landau, and Monson (note 2). 54. A Southern Africa Migration Project study found that 48% of respondents considered migrants a criminal threat (J. Crush and V. Williams Criminal Tendencies: Immigrants and Illegality in South Africa, Migration Policy Brief No. 10 (Cape Town: SAMP 2003) p. 1). In a more recent Johannesburg-based survey of 3,660 police officers, 87% believed that most undocumented migrants in Johannesburg are involved in crime, and over 78% believed that foreigners cause a lot of crime regardless of their immigration status (G. Newham, T. Masuku, and J. Dlamini, Diversity and Transformation in The South African Police Service: A Study of Police Perspectives on Race, Gender and the Community in the Johannesburg Policing Area, Report of the Criminal Justice Programme, CSVR, 2006). 55. B. L. Masetlha, 'Remarks at the Presentation of the Department of Home Affairs on the Migration System in South Africa to the Home Affairs Portfolio Committee', 15 April 2002, available at . 56. Crush and Williams (note 54) p. 1. 57. Landau, 'The Meaning of Living in South Africa' (note 30) p. 5. 58. These include Democratic Alliance (DA) Caucus chairperson for Johannesburg, Vasco da Gama (SAPA/IOL, 'Tension Simmers in Alexandra', Independent Online, 13 May 2008); DA leader Helen Zille (SAPA, 'Zille Warns Against Opening of Borders', Mail & Guardian Online, 27 May 2008); and the South African Institute for Race Relations (SAIRR) (Mail & Guardian/SAPA, 'Government Blamed for "Violence Tinderbox"', Mail & Guardian Online, 20 May 2008). 59. Justice Tankebe, 'Self-Help, Policing, and Procedural Justice: Ghanaian Vigilantism and the Rule of Law', Law & Society Review 43/3 (2009) p. 246. 60. I draw my discussion of the border as process and institution from the helpful discussion by David Newman in David Newman, 'The Lines that Continue to Separate Us: Borders in Our 'Borderless' World', Progress in Human Geography 30/2 (2006) pp. 143–161. 61. Daniel Nina, 'Dirty Harry is Back: Vigilantism in South Africa – The (Re)Emergence of 'Good' and 'Bad' Community', African Security Review 9/1 (2000), available at . 62. Ibid. 63. Tamlyn Monson and Jean-Pierre Misago, 'Why History Has Repeated Itself: The Security Risks of Structural Xenophobia', SA Crime Quarterly, 29 (2009) p. 26. 64. Daryl Glaser, '(Dis)Connections: Elite and Popular 'Common Sense' on the Matter of Foreigners', in S. Hassim, T. Kupe, and E. Worby (eds.), Go Home or Die Here: Violence, Xenophobia and the Reinvention of Difference in South Africa (Johannesburg: Wits University Press 2008) pp. 53–63. 65. I mark these terms to acknowledge that they have been reified for the sake of conceptual expediency. Following Khadiagala, I acknowledge that "community is a process not an entity" (Lynne S. Khadiagala, 'The Failure of Popular Justice in Uganda: Local Councils and Women's Property Rights', Development and Change 32 (2001) p. 59) and assert the same of the state, which, as Alison Mountz notes, acts only through its complex embodiment in a myriad of separate actors embedded in innumerable personal and institutional agendas, linkages and hierarchies (A. Mountz, 'Human Smuggling, the Transnational Imaginary, and Everyday Geographies of the Nation-State', Antipode 35/3 (2003) pp. 622–44). 66. Monson, Report on the SAHRC Investigation (note 49) entries 75, 76, 100, 197, 220, 225, 235. 67. Tankebe (note 59) p. 250. 68. Ibid., drawing on Jack Barbalet, Emotions, Social Theory and Social Structure: A Macrosociological Approach (Cambridge: CUP). 69. Loren B. Landau, 'Introducing the Demons,' in Loren B. Landau (ed.) Exorcising the Demons Within: Xenophobia, Violence and Statecraft in Contemporary South Africa (Johannesburg: Wits University Press 2011) p.1. 70. David Newman, 'The Resilience of Territorial Conflict in an Era of Globalization', in Miles Kahler and Barbara F. Walter (eds.), Territoriality and Conflict in an Era of Globalisation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2006) p. 88. 71. Weber (note 16) p. 78. 72. Neocosmos, 'The Politics of Fear' (note 28) p. 587, and Neocosmos, From 'Foreign Natives' (note 27). 73. Krasner (note 20) pp. 229–251. 74. Dunn (note 22) p. 51. 75. Participant in men's focus group, Alexandra Sector 2, personal communication, 5 Sept. 2008; Marks Moyo, Zimbabwean male displaced from Alexandra to River Road CoSS, personal communication (research interview), 12 July 2008; Michael Tshuma, Zimbabwean male displaced from Alexandra to River road CoSS, personal communication (research interview), 12 July 2008; Milos Phiri, Zimbabwean male displaced from Alexandra to River Road CoSS, personal communication (research interview), 6 July 2008; Female NGO staff member in Alexandra, personal communication (research interview), 9 Sept. 2008. 76. O'Donnell (note 20) pp. 1361, 1365. 77. Stephen Ellis, 'The Historical Significance of South Africa's Third Force', Journal of Southern African Studies 24/2 (1998) p. 261. 78. Lars Buur and Steffen Jensen, 'Introduction: Vigilantism and the Policing of Everyday Life in South Africa', African Studies 63/2 (2004) p. 142. 79. Ibid., p. 261. 80. Ibid. 81. Sara Rich Dorman, 'Post-Liberation Politics in Africa: Examining the Political Legacy of Struggle', Third World Quarterly 27/6 (2006) p. 1097. 82. Ibid., p. 1092. 83. Ibid., p. 1094. 84. Buur and Jensen (note 78) p. 142. 85. For instance, see News24, 'ANCYL to "Expose Third Force"',15 Feb. 2010, available at ; Tarryn Habour, 'Spooks to Sniff out Who's Behind Protests', 19 March 2010, available at . 86. S'bu Zikode, 'The Third Force', Journal of Asian and African Studies 41 (2006) pp. 185–189. 87. C. Tilly, 'War Making and State Making as Organised Crime', in P. B. Evans, D. Rueschemeyer, and T. Skocpol (eds.), Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1985). 88. SAPA/IOL, 'Third Force Could be Behind Violence', 13 May 2008; Monson, Report on the SAHRC Investigation (note 49) entry 90. 89. For instance, Crush (note 40) pp. 45–50; Loren B. Landau and Tamlyn Monson, 'Displacement, Estrangement and Sovereignty: Reconfiguring State Power in Urban South Africa', Government and Opposition 43/2 (2008) pp. 315–336. 90. Mail & Guardian/SAPA, 'Government Blamed' (note 58). 91. SAPA/IOL, 'Police Have Evidence of Third Force – MEC', 13 May 2008; Monson, Report on the SAHRC Investigation (note 49) entry 268. 92. The day after the 'concrete evidence' statement was made, the Institute for Democracy South Africa judged the involvement of a third force to be highly unlikely (Monson, Report on the SAHRC Investigation (note 49) entry 334). 93. Ben Maclennan, 'NIA: Violence Deliberately Unleashed', Mail & Guardian Online, 22 May 2008; Monson, Report on the SAHRC Investigation (note 49) entry 364. 94. Reuters, SAPA, IFP, '"Deliberate Effort" Behind Attacks', Mail & Guardian Online, 23 May 2008. 95. Brigadier C. A. Fraser in a South African Defence Force text, cited by Ellis (note 77) p. 261. 96. Siyabonga Mkhwanazi and SAPA, '"Government not to Blame for Violence"', Independent Online 23 May 2008. 97. Marco Antonisich, 'On Territory, the Nation-State and the Crisis of the Hyphen', Progress in Human Geography 33/6 (2009) pp. 789–806. 98. Colin Flint, 'Political Geography: Globalization, Metapolitical Geographies and Everyday Life', Progress in Human Geography 26/3 (2002) p. 93. 99. Clifford Shearing and Jennifer Wood, 'Nodal Governance, Democracy, and the New 'Denizens', Journal of Law and Society 30/3 (2003) pp. 400–402. 100. Ibid. 101. Ibid., p. 404. 102. Ibid., p. 405. 103. IDASA, Background Report on Recent Xenophobic Violence in Gauteng, May 2008, p. 1 (Duncan Breen, personal communication, 4 March 2009); Parliament of the Republic of South Africa, Report of the Task Team of Members of Parliament Probing Violence and Attacks on Foreign Nationals, 13 May 2008, p. 11 (Duncan Breen, personal communication, 9 March 2009); Misago, Landau, and Monson (note 2) pp. 2, 32; for detailed discussion see Jean-Pierre Misago, 'Disorder in a Changing Society: Authority and the Micro-Politics of Violence'; Noor Nieftagodien, 'Xenophobia's Local Genesis: Historical Constructions of Insiders and the Politics of Exclusion in Alexandra Township'; Tamlyn Monson, 'Making the Law, Breaking the Law, Taking the Law into Our Own Hands: Sovereignty and Territorial Control in Three South African Settlements', all in Landau (ed) Exorcising the Demons Within. 104. Misago, Landau, and Monson (note 2) and transcriptions of interviews conducted for that report but not cited in the final version. 105. Mandy Rossouw and Sello S. Alcock, 'Is a "Third Force" Involved?', Mail & Guardian Online, 1 June 2008. 106. Ibid. 107. John Agnew provides a useful discussion and critique of the notion of the state-as-container in 'The Territorial Trap: The Geographical Assumptions of International Relations Theory', Review of International Political Economy 1/1 (1994) pp. 53–80. 108. L. B. Landau, 'Loving the Alien? Citizenship, Law, and the Future in South Africa's Demonic Society', African Affairs 109/435 (2010) p. 216. 109. This concept is explored in depth in Shearing and Wood (note 99) pp. 400–419. 110. This is not to argue that the South African state is not sovereign or is 'weak' as opposed to 'strong,' as it may be argued that even in the most robust states, the impression of complete sovereignty is a fiction. 111. Noor Nieftagodien, 'Incoherent Responses to Crisis', 18 June 2008, available at . 112. Misago, Landau, and Monson (note 2). 113. Gauteng MEC for Safety and Security, Firoz Cachalia, quoted in SAPA, 'Tension Simmers in Alexandra', Independent Online, 13 May 2008. 114. Siphamandla Zondi, 'Xenophobic Attacks: Towards an Understanding of Violence against African Immigrants in South Africa', Africa Insight 38/2 (2008); David B. Coplan, 'Innocent Violence: Social Exclusion, Identity, and the Press in an African Democracy', Identities 16/3 (2009); Landau, 'The Meaning of Living in South Africa' (note 30). 115. 'Politicians Weigh in on Alex', Independent Online, 14 May 2008. 116. 'Please Help Us, Winnie', Independent Online, 15 May 2008. 117. SAPA, 'ANC to Discuss Gauteng's Xenophobic Attacks', Independent Online, 20 May 2008. 118. Office of the Premier, Western Cape Provincial Government, 'Western Cape Premier Rasool Apologises for the Loss of African Lives', 19 May 2008, available at . 119. SAPA, 'Criminals Use Xenophobia', Independent Online, 21 May 2008; SAPA, 'Foreigners Assaulted in Durban's Quarry', Independent Online, 23 May 2008. 120. SAPA, '"Chopped" Body Found on East Rand', Independent Online, 19 May 2008. 121. SAPA/AFP, 'SA Apologises for Xenophobic Attacks', Independent Online, 23 May 2008. 122. Department of Foreign Affairs (note 35). 123. Staff reporters and SAPA, 'An Absolute Disgrace – Mbeki', Independent Online, 26 May 2008. 124. For instance, Michael Hough records a total of 920 cases of service delivery unrest in 2006. See Hough, Michael, 'Violent Protest at Local Government Level in South Africa: Revolutionary Potential?', Scientia Militaria: South African Journal of Military Studies 36/1 (2008) pp. 1–13. 125. Protests involving violence on non-nationals has occurred, for instance, in the Johannesburg CBD (1997), Bothaville (Free State province, 2005), and Khutsong, Johannesburg (2007) – Crush (note 40) pp. 45, 49, 50. 126. Tankebe (note 59) p. 250. 127. Suren Pillay, 'Crime, Community and the Governance of Violence in Post-Apartheid South Africa', Politikon 35/2 (2008) p. 151. 128. Christine Fauvelle-Aymar and Aurelia Segatti, 'People, Space and Politics: An Exploration of Factors Explaining the 2008 Anti-foreigner Violence in South Africa', In L.B. Landau (ed) Exorcising the Demons Within (Johannesburg: Wits University Press 2011) pp. 56–88. 129. Clunan (note 14) p. 5. 130. Krasner (note 20) pp. 242, 248.