Neutralism Made Positive: Egyptian Anti-colonialism on the Road to Bandung
2014; Routledge; Volume: 42; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/13530194.2013.878526
ISSN1469-3542
Autores Tópico(s)Historical Geopolitical and Social Dynamics
ResumoAbstractMany assessments of the trajectory of positive neutralism in Egypt have presented it as a foreign policy implemented in response to the Cold War context, and ineffective in the shadow of superpower rivalries. This contribution contends instead that positive neutralism developed out of the pursuit of a particular combination of foreign policy and nation building in Egypt, by elites whose political formation was dominated by an anti-colonial rather than Cold War consciousness. This is demonstrated through the analysis of three foreign policy episodes and parallel nation building programmes unfolding between 1952 and 1955. Together they illustrate the origins of positive neutralism in the positions taken by Gamal Abdel Nasser and the Free Officers on the British presence in Egypt, on regional alliances and the Baghdad Pact, and on development and pan-Arabism in nation building, all before Egypt's participation in the 1955 Bandung Conference after which the policy of positive neutralism was formally adopted. The use of Egyptian documents throughout foregrounds Egyptian agency and motivations in drawing up policy, and enables an evaluation of the contributions of positive neutralism identified in Egypt at the time. AcknowledgementsThe author would like to thank James Piscatori, Louise Fawcett and Alexander Kazamias for their valuable comments on this article in its various phases.Notes 1 Adeed Dawisha, ‘Egypt’, in Yezid Sayigh and Avi Shlaim (eds), The Cold War and the Middle East (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997), p. 47. 2 These five principles were first proposed by Prime Ministers Chou En Lai of China and Nehru of India in 1954. They would become the basis for the convening of the Bandung Conference. 3 See Kal Holsti, ‘National Role Conceptions in the Study of Foreign Policy’, International Studies Quarterly, 14(3) (September 1970), pp. 233–309. 4 See Jacqueline Braveboy-Wagner, ‘The Foreign Policies of the Global South: An Introduction’, in Jacqueline Braveboy-Wagner (ed.), The Foreign Policies of the Global South: Re-thinking Conceptual Frameworks (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2003). 5 See Simon Bromley, Rethinking Middle East Politics: State Formation and Development (Oxford: Polity, 1994). 6 Gamal Abdel Nasser, Falsafat al-Thawra [The Philosophy of the Revolution] (Cairo: Madbuli, 2003), first published 1953, p. 5; trans. Dorothy Parker, Egypt's Liberation: The Philosophy of the Revolution (Washington: Public Affairs Press, 1955), p. 12. 7 Amin Huwaydi, Khamsun ‘Aman min al-‘Awasif: Ma Ra'aytuhu Qultuhu [Fifty Years of Storms: I Said What I Saw] (Cairo: Al-Ahram, 2002), p. 44. 8 Muhammad 'Ata, Misr Bayn Thawratayn [Egypt between Two Revolutions] (Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif, 1955). 9 Nasser, Falsafat, p. 26; Philosophy, pp. 39–40. 10 Free Officer Pamphlets, ‘Al-Jaysh Juz'an min al-Sha‘b’ [The Army is a Part of the People], circa February 1946; ‘Al-Jaysh Jaysh al-Umma’ [The Army is the Army of the Nation], circa mid-1950; ‘Al-Jaysh ma‘ al-Sha‘b’ [The Army is with the People], ‘Al-Inqilab al-Jadid’ [The New Coup], circa March 1952, all available at www.nasser.org; see also Nasser, Falsafat, pp. 9–15; Philosophy, pp. 19–24; Khalid Muhyi al-Din, Wa-l'an Atakallam [And Now I Speak] (Cairo: Al-Ahram, 1992), pp. 118, 120. 11 Nasser, Falsafat, p. 27; Philosophy, pp. 40–41. 12 Nasser, Falsafat, p. 30; Philosophy, p. 44. 13 Nasser, Falsafat, p. 61; Philosophy, pp. 88–89. While Nasser adds religion and geographical continuity as further factors, his emphasis remains on the historical element. 14 Peter Hahn, The United States, Great Britain and Egypt, 1945–1956: Strategy and Diplomacy in the early Cold War (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), pp. 94–106. 15 See ‘Commander-in-Chief Discusses Collective Security with Arab League Secretary-General’, Al-Ahram, 9 August 1952, p. 1. 16 See statement cited in Anouar Abdel Malek, Egypt: Military Society: The Army Regime, the Left, and Social Change under Nasser (New York: Random House, 1968), p. 226. 17 See Keith Wheelock, Nasser's New Egypt: A Critical Analysis (London: Stevens and Sons, 1960), p. 215; Nasser, ‘Statement on Egypt's Neutrality between East and West’, 7 December 1953, http://www.nasser.org/Speeches/browser.aspx?SID = 88〈 = ar; ‘Salah Salim at Alexandria University, 30.6.53’, in Mahmud Fawzi al-Wakil, Hadhihi al-Thawra: Kitab al-‘Aam al-Awwal [This Revolution: The Book of the First Year] (Cairo: Al-Ahram, 1953), p. 338. 18 See Wheelock, Nasser's New Egypt, p. 216; Nasser, Press Conference, Kafr al-Dawaar, 19 April 1954, http://nasser.org/Speeches/browser.aspx?SID = 141〈 = ar. 19 Nasser, ‘These Plays Will Not Distract Us from the Great Truth, 22.5.53’, in al-Wakil, Hadhihi al-Thawra, p. 66. See also Salah Salim, cited in ‘Egypt Defeats Britain in the Cold War, 13.7.53’, in al-Wakil, Hadhihi al-Thawra, pp. 354–356; Nasser, ‘Statement on Britain's Cold War Against Egypt’, 23 May 1953, http://nasser.org/Speeches/browser.aspx?SID = 40〈 = ar. 20 Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1952–4, IX: Ambassador in UK (Gifford) to DOS, 3 January 1953, pp. 1946–1948. 21 Mahmud Riyad, Mudhakirat Mahmud Riyad: 1948–1978 [The Memoirs of Mahmud Riyad: 1948–1978] (Beirut: al-Mu'assasa al-‘Arabiyya li-l-Nashr, 1987), vol. II, p. 39. 22 Muhammad Hassanein Heikal, Cutting the Lion's Tail: Suez through Egyptian Eyes (London: Corgi, 1988), p. 47; Ray Takeyh, The Origins of the Eisenhower Doctrine: The US, Britain and Nasser's Egypt, 1953–7 (New York: St Martin's Press, 2000), pp. 37–38. 23 Heikal, Cutting the Lion's Tail, pp. 47, 51. For aid to Israel, see Jonathan Alterman, Egypt and American Foreign Assistance, 1952–1956: Hopes Dashed (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), pp. 75–76. 24 Ghalib, cited in Tareq Ismael, International Relations of the Contemporary Middle East: A Study in World Politics (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1986), p. 173. 25 Heikal, Cutting the Lion's Tail, p. 54. 26 See Muhammad Hassanein Heikal, Milaffat al-Suways: Harb al-Thalathin Sana [The Suez Files: The Thirty Years War] (Cairo: Markaz al-Ahram li-l-Tarjama wa-l-Nashr, 1986), pp. 277–279. 27 Sa'd Zaghlul Fuad, Mudhakirat Fida'i Misri [Memoirs of an Egyptian Freedom Fighter] (Cairo: al-Maktab al-Misri al-Hadith, 2001), p. 105. 28 Heikal, Milaffat al-Suways, p. 274. 29 Heikal, Cutting the Lion's Tail, p. 53. 30 Heikal, Milaffat al-Suways, p. 279. 31 This influential radio station was founded on Nasser's suggestion by the Arab Bureau in 1953, and promoted the principles of pan-Arabism to audiences outside Egypt. 32 Interview with Muhammad Fayiq, Cairo, 26 February 2007 (in Arabic). 33 See Muhammad Fayiq, ‘Abd al-Nasir wa-l-Thawra al-Afriqiyya [Abdel Nasser and the African Revolution] (Cairo: Dar al-Mustaqbal al-'Arabi, 1982), pp. 32–37. 34 See Amin Shakir, Ahmed Sa'id and Saad al-Shazly on Egypt's support of Algerian independence, cited in Tariq Habib, Milaffat Thawrat Yulyu [The July Revolution Files] (Cairo: Al-Ahram, 1997), citing pp. 227–228. 35 Heikal, Cutting the Lion's Tail, p. 53. 36 See Galal A. Amin, ‘Evolution and Shifts in Egypt's Economic Policies: In Search of a Pattern’, in Saad Eddin Ibrahim, Çağlar Keyder and Ay¸e Öncü (eds), Developmentalism and Beyond: Society and Politics in Egypt and Turkey (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1994), pp. 122, 130; John Waterbury, The Egypt of Nasser and Sadat: The Political Economy of Two Regimes (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), p. 61. 37 Nasser, Speech on Occasion of Land Distribution to Peasants, Taftish Damira, 23 July 1953, http://nasser.org/Speeches/browser.aspx?SID = 48〈 = ar. 38 CCR Decree, 8 November 1953, http://nasser.org/Decisions/DECcontent.aspx?src = Search〈 = ar. 39 Muhyi al-Din, Wa-l'aan Atakallam, p. 239; Muhammad Hassanein Heikal, Li Misr La li-‘Abd al-Nasir [For Egypt, Not for Abdel Nasser] (Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 2003), p. 112; Amin, ‘Evolution and Shifts’, p. 122. 40 Saad Eddin Ibrahim, ‘Al-Mashru‘ al-Ijtima‘i li-Thawrat Yulyu’ [The Social Project of the July Revolution], in Saad Eddin Ibrahim (ed.), Misr wa-l-‘Uruba wa Thawrat Yulyu [Egypt, Arabism and the July Revolution] (Beirut: Dar al-Mustaqbal al-‘Arabi, 1982), p. 142; Nasser, Speech on Second Anniversary of the Revolution, 22 July 1954, http://nasser.org/Speeches/browser.aspx?SID = 195〈 = ar. 41 Nasser, Speech to the Workers in Dumiat, 10 April 1953, http://nasser.org/Speeches/browser.aspx?SID = 26〈 = ar. 42 Alterman, Egypt and American Foreign Assistance, p. 58. 43 Abdel Malek, Egypt, p. 101. 44 Nasser, Speech to Arab Chiefs of Staff Conference, Cairo, 25 August 1953, http://nasser.org/Speeches/browser.aspx?SID = 61〈 = ar; Nasser, Speech at Palestine Club, Alexandria, 13 December 1953, http://nasser.org/Speeches/browser.aspx?SID = 92〈 = ar; see also the reformulations of foreign policy declared in January 1954, which called for the establishment of Arab and African blocs: Patrick Seale, The Struggle for Syria: A Study of Post-war Arab Politics, 1945–1958 (New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press, 1987), p. 195. 45 Fathi al-Dib, ‘Abd al-Nasir wa-Tahrir al-Mashriq al-‘Arabi [Abdel Nasser and the Liberation of the Arab East] (Cairo: Markaz al-Ahram li-l-Dirasat al-Siyasiyya wa-l-Istratijiyya, 2000), pp. 27, 455–456; Riyad, Mudhakirat Mahmud Riyad, p. 35; on the official delegation embarking on Egypt's first Arab ‘mission’, June 1954, see Al-Dib, ‘Abd al-Nasir, pp. 125–155. 46 Al-Dib, ‘Abd al-Nasir, pp. 188–190. 47 Al-Dib, ‘Abd al-Nasir, p. 187. 48 Al-Dib, ‘Abd al-Nasir, p. 138. US arms to Iraq alarmed King Saud in particular: Correspondence, Saud to Nasser, 17 May 1954: Document 102, Heikal, Milaffat al-Suways, pp. 760–761. 49 See al-Dib, ‘Abd al-Nasir, p. 142; Heikal, Milaffat al-Suways, pp. 318–319. 50 Riyad, Mudhakirat Mahmud Riyad, pp. 45, 47. See also Egyptian National Archives (ENA): FM-249/1: ‘Official Communiqué of the Royal Iraqi Legation’, Bonn, 12 February 1955, forwarded by Egyptian Embassy, Bonn to National Guidance Ministry and Egyptian Foreign Ministry, No. 71, 22 February 1955. 51 Riyad, Mudhakirat Mahmud Riyad, p. 59. 52 ENA: FM-1248/2: ‘Egypt's Answer to Nuri al-Said's Claims’, Information Council, circa 1956; al-Dib, ‘Abd al-Nasir, p. 207. 53 Seale, The Struggle for Syria, p. 211. 54 Riyad, Mudhakirat Mahmud Riyad, p. 50. 55 Al-Dib, ‘Abd al-Nasir, pp. 279, 407–408; Interview, Ahmad Sa'id, Manager of Sawt al-‘Arab, Cairo, 7 March 2007 (in Arabic). 56 Riyad, Mudhakirat Mahmud Riyad, pp. 52–53. 57 Secret Minutes of Arab Premiers Meeting, 22–29 January 1955: http://nasser.org/Speeches/browser.aspx?SID = 310〈 = ar. 58 ENA: FM-249/1: Egyptian Embassy, Bonn to Undersecretary of National Guidance Ministry, No. 180, ‘The Danger of the Turco-Iraqi Pact to the Arab States’, Information Council, 11 February 1955. 59Al-Jumhuriyya, 25 February 1955, p. 1. 60 Husayn Fahmi, ‘In the Battle: The Western-Zionist Conspiracy aimed at Destroying the [Collective Security] Pact and Settlement with Israel’ (Arabic), in Al-Jumhuriyya, 25 February 1955. 61 ENA: FM-249/1: Press Department, Egyptian Embassy, Washington, ‘Turco-Iraqi Pact through Egyptian Eyes’, February 1955. 62 ENA: FM-249/1: Egyptian Embassy, Baghdad to Egyptian Foreign Ministry, No. 20, ‘Iraqi-Turkish Pact’, 28 February 1955; ENA: FM-249/1: Egyptian Embassy, Baghdad to Egyptian Foreign Ministry, No. 22, ‘Message of Saleh Jabir’, 7 March 1955. 63 Ahmad Hamrush, Qissat Thawrat 23 Yulyu: III, ‘Abd al-Nasir wa-l-‘Arab [The Story of the 23 July Revolution: III, Abdel Nasser and the Arabs] (Beirut: al-Mu'assasa al-‘Arabiyya li-l-Tiba‘a wa-l-Nashr, 1976), p. 22. 64 See al-Dib, ‘Abd al-Nasir, pp. 287–290. A group of young Iraqi officers had sought assistance with establishing their own radio, and were given a station initially intended for the Egyptian intelligence. Its Iraqi presenters received training in Cairo, but wrote their own programmes, in line with the CCR policy of non-interventionist support. 65 Riyad, Mudhakirat Mahmud Riyad, pp. 77–88. 66 Riyad, Mudhakirat Mahmud Riyad, p. 79; Al-Jumhuriyya, 25/27 February 1955, p. 1. 67Al-Jumhuriyya, 26 February 1955, p. 1. 68Al-Jumhuriyya, 1 March 1955, p. 1. 69 ENA: FM-249/1: Telegram from Egyptian Embassy, Damascus to Egyptian Foreign Ministry, 22 March 1955. 70 Muhammad Hafiz Isma'il, Amn Misr al-Qawmi fi ‘Asr al-Tahadiyat [Egypt's National Security in the Era of Challenges] (Cairo: Al-Ahram, 1987), p. 51. 71 Cf. Seale, The Struggle for Syria, p. 226; Fawaz Gerges, The Superpowers and the Middle East: Regional and International Politics, 1955–1967 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), p. 29; James Jankowski, Nasser's Egypt, Arab Nationalism, and the United Arab Republic (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002), p. 78. 72 ENA: FM-249/1: Egyptian Embassy, Washington to Egyptian Foreign Ministry, No. 41, 4 March 1955; Telegram from Egyptian Embassy, Washington to Egyptian Foreign Ministry, Press, 17 March 1955. 73 Al-Dib, ‘Abd al-Nasir, pp. 408–409. 74 This is acknowledged to a degree in Jankowski, Nasser's Egypt, p. 80 and Takeyh, The Origins of the Eisenhower Doctrine, p. 95. 75 See accounts of Palestine Liberation Organisation founder and head of its Palestine Research Centre respectively: Shafiq al-Hut, Bayn al-Watan wa-l-Manfa: Min Yafa Bada’ al-Mishwar [Between the Homeland and Exile: The Journey Started in Yaffa] (Beirut: Riyad al-Rayyes Books, 2007), pp. 68–69, 143–155; Anis Sayigh, ‘An Anis Sayigh [About Anis Sayigh] (Beirut: Riyad al-Rayyes Books, 2006), p. 173. 76 French Diplomatic Archives (FDA): Afrique-Levant/Levant, Generalités 536/Jerusalem: French Consul, Jerusalem to French Foreign Ministry, 8 April 1954; ENA: FM-249/2: Egyptian Foreign Ministry Research Department, Memorandum, No. 4255, ‘Attacks on the Turco-Iraqi Pact in Jordan’, 1 September 1955. 77 ENA: FM-249/1: Egyptian Embassy, Bucharest to Egyptian Foreign Ministry, No. 63, 3 March 1955; ‘Protest Memorandum of Iraqi Students against Baghdad Pact Council’, in Egyptian Embassy, Baghdad to Egyptian Foreign Ministry, 2 December 1955. 78 ENA: FM-249/2: Egyptian Foreign Ministry Research Department, Memorandum, No. 2876, ‘Leaflets by “Committee of Resistance to Colonial Pacts” in Syria’, 20 June 1955. 79 ENA: FM-249/1: Telegram, Egyptian Embassy, Beirut to Egyptian Foreign Ministry, 11 March 1955; 249/2: Telegram, Egyptian Embassy, Beirut to Egyptian Foreign Ministry, 15 June 1955; Egyptian Foreign Ministry Research Department, Memorandum, No. 2847, ‘Lebanese Opposition to the Turco-Iraqi Pact’, 20 June 1955. 80 State Information Service, Al-Thawra al-Misriyya fi Thalath Sanawat (Cairo: Services Council Press, 1955), p. 179. 81 Mahmud Faksh, ‘The Consequences of the Introduction and Spread of Modern Education: Education and National Integration in Egypt’, Middle Eastern Studies, 16(2) (May 1980), p. 52. 82Al-Jumhuriyya, 27 February 1955, p. 1. 83 Al-Dib, ‘Abd al-Nasir, pp. 189–190. 84 State Information Service, Thalath Sanawat, p. 193. 85 Nasser, Speech at People's Conference, Cairo, with President Sukarno on Third Anniversary of the Revolution, 22 July 1955; see also Egyptian Radio Archives: Interview by Ahmad Sa'id with Syrian Justice Minister 'Ali Buzu, ‘The Struggle of the Arabs’, Sawt al-‘Arab Radio, Box 5, Cassette 199. 86 See Seale, The Struggle for Syria, pp. 193–194; Nasser, with Sukarno, 22 July 1955. 87 Examples in ENA: FM-273(746)/7: Letters to Egyptian Embassy, Damascus from Aleppo Consul, 24 January 1956; from Aleppo School, 26 January 1956; from Syrian Head of Trade Unions in Homs, 28 June 1956; see also 273(746)/2; 272(747)/5. 88 ENA: FM-249/1: Egyptian Embassy, Ankara to Egyptian Foreign Ministry, No. 132, 23 November 1955. 89 Nasser, Speech in Honour of Soldiers Heading to the Canal, 12 February 1955, http://nasser.org/Speeches/browser.aspx?SID = 313〈 = ar. 90 Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi, Mudhakirat ‘Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi [The Memoirs of Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi] (Cairo: Al-Maktab al-Misri al-Hadith, 1977), vol. I, p. 127. 91 Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (London: Penguin, 2001), pp. 88–91, 98–101, 110–121. 92 Huwaydi, Khamsun ‘Aman min al-‘Awasif, p. 53; Amin Hewedy, ‘Nasser and the Crisis of 1956’, in William Roger Louis and Roger Owen (eds), Suez 1956: The Crisis and its Consequences (New York: Clarendon Press/Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 163–164. 93 Cited in Seale, The Struggle for Syria, p. 235. 94 Heikal, Cutting the Lion's Tail, p. 81. 95 Isma'il, Amn Misr al-Qawmi fi ‘Asr al-Tahadiyat, p. 44. 96 Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1955–7, ‘Near East; Iran; Iraq’, Vol. XII: Memorandum of a Conversation, DOS, Washington, 11 August 1955, pp. 140, 144. On Plan Alpha, see Takeyh, The Origins of the Eisenhower Doctrine, pp. 65–72. 97 Salah Nasr, Mudhakirat Salah Nasr, al-Juz’ al-Awwal: al-Su'ud [The Memoirs of Salah Nasr, Volume I: Ascent] (Cairo: Dar al-Khayyal, 1999), p. 371. 98 Interview, Abd al-Qadir Yassin, Cairo, 15 November 2010; 'Abd al-Qadir Yassin, ‘Umrun fial-Manfa: Mudhakirat ‘Abd al-Qadir Yassin [A Life in Exile: The Memoirs of Abd al-Qadir Yassin] (Damascus: Al-Dar al-Wataniyya al-Jadida, 2009), pp. 19–20. 99 Heikal, Cutting the Lion's Tail, p. 80.100 Alexei Vassiliev, Russian Policy in the Middle East: From Messianism to Pragmatism (Reading, UK: Ithaca Press, 1993), p. 32.101 Abdel Malek, Egypt, p. 226.102 Nasser's Press Conference with US Press Delegation, 14 March 1955, http://nasser.org/Speeches/browser.aspx?SID = 321〈 = ar.103 Nasser, Speech at Opening Ceremony of Bandung Conference, 19 April 1955, http://nasser.org/Speeches/browser.aspx?SID = 339〈 = ar; see also text in ENA: FM-273(746)/2.104 Nasser, Bandung Speech.105 Interview, Ahmad Sa'id, Manager of Sawt al-‘Arab, Cairo, 7 March 2007.106 See James R. Brennan, ‘Radio Cairo and the Decolonization of East Africa, 1953–64’, in Christopher Lee (ed.), Making a World after Empire: The Bandung Moment and its Political Afterlives (Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2010), pp. 179–181.107 Isma'il, Amn Misr al-Qawmi fi ‘Asr al-Tahadiyat, p. 45; Seale, The Struggle for Syria, p. 235; Habib, Milaffat Thawrat Yulyu, p. 181; Takeyh, The Origins of the Eisenhower Doctrine, p. 81.108 Heikal, Cutting the Lion's Tail, p. 81.109 Heikal, Milaffat al-Suways, p. 347.110 Al-Baghdadi, Mudhakirat ‘Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi, p. 202.111 On Israeli influence, see Muhammad Abd el-Wahab Sayed-Ahmed, Nasser and American Foreign Policy, 1952–1956 (London: Laam, 1989), p. 109, fn 118.112 Isma'il, Amn Misr al-Qawmi fi ‘Asr al-Tahadiyat, p. 45.113 See Takeyh, The Origins of the Eisenhower Doctrine, pp. 84–85.114 Cf. FRUS: 1955, Vol. XIV, ‘Memorandum of a Conversation’, DOS, 3 October 1955, p. 543; FRUS: 1955, Vol. XIV, ‘National Intelligence Estimate’, 15 November 1955, p. 771.115 Cited in al-Baghdadi, Mudhakirat ‘Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi, p. 205.116 Al-Baghdadi, Mudhakirat ‘Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi, p. 213.117 ENA: FM-1248/10, Egyptian Embassy, Washington to Egyptian Foreign Ministry, No. 227, ‘Ambassador's Report on Egyptian-American Relations over the Recent Period’, 27 October 1955.118 ENA: FM-1248/10: Egyptian Foreign Ministry Arab Bureau to Egyptian Embassy, Damascus, 8 November 1955.119 ENA: Egyptian Embassy, Washington to Egyptian Foreign Ministry, No. 223, ‘Meeting with Mr Dulles’, 18 October 1955: Document 113, Heikal, Milaffat al-Suways, pp. 774–776.120 Raymond Baker, Egypt's Uncertain Revolution under Nasser and Sadat (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), p. 40.121 See Muhammad al-Imam, ‘Muqawimat al-Tanmiya fi al-Mashru’ al-Nasiri’ [The Constituents of Development in the Nasserist Project], in Muhammad Idris (ed.), Dirasat fi al-Heqba al-Nasiriyya [Studies in the Nasserist Era] (Cairo: Markaz al-Ahram li-l-Dirasat al-Siyasiyya wa-l-Istratijiyya, 2003), p. 290; Waterbury, The Egypt of Nasser and Sadat, p. 62; Abdel Malek, Egypt, p. 106.122 Alterman, Egypt and American Foreign Assistance, p. 59.123 Alterman, Egypt and American Foreign Assistance, p. 59; see related discussion on nationalisations in Alexander Kazamias, ‘The “Purge of the Greeks” from Nasserite Egypt: Myths and Realities’, Journal of the Hellenic Diaspora, 35(2) (2009), pp. 13–34.124 Omnia El Shakry, ‘Cairo as Capital of Socialist Revolution?’, in Paul Amar and Diane Singerman (eds), Cairo Cosmopolitan: Politics, Culture, and Urban Space in the New Globalized Middle East (Cairo and New York: American University in Cairo Press, 2006), p. 79.125 El Shakry, ‘Cairo as Capital’, p. 81.126 See Alterman, Egypt and American Foreign Assistance, pp. 59–62.127 Nasser, Lecture at Military College, 28 March 1955, http://nasser.org/Speeches/browser.aspx?SID = 327〈 = ar. See al-Imam, ‘Muqawimat al-Tanmiya’, p. 289.128 See Michael Hudson, Arab Politics: The Search for Legitimacy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977), pp. 241–247.129 State Information Service, Thalath Sanawat.130 Nasser, Speech at Ceremony Laying Foundation Stone for Steelworks Factory, 23 July 1955, http://nasser.org/Speeches/browser.aspx?SID = 380〈 = ar.131 ‘Thirty Million to Benefit from 200 Combined Units in October’, Al-Jumhuriyya, 30 December 1954, p. 3.132 Alterman, Egypt and American Foreign Assistance, p. 84.133 Dia’ al-Din Dawud, Sanawat ma‘ ‘Abd al-Nasir [Years with Abdel Nasser] (Cairo: Dar al-Mawqif al-‘Arabi, 1984), p. 35.134 Nasser, Speech at Opening of First Combined Unit for Rural Services in Egypt, Bamasht, Giza, 13 July 1955, http://nasser.org/Speeches/browser.aspx?SID = 374〈 = ar.135 ‘Female Graduates’ Union Conference’, Al-Jumhuriyya, 27 August 1955, p. 3. See Ibrahim, ‘Al-Mashru‘’, p. 142; Kathleen Howard-Merriam, ‘Women, Education, and the Professions in Egypt’, Comparative Education Review, 2(23) (June 1979), p. 261.136 Nasser, with Sukarno, 22 July 1955.137 Isma'il, Amn Misr al-Qawmi fi ‘Asr al-Tahadiyat, p. 47.138 Isma'il, Amn Misr al-Qawmi fi ‘Asr al-Tahadiyat, pp. 48–49.139 Isma'il, Amn Misr al-Qawmi fi ‘Asr al-Tahadiyat, p. 48.140 Isma'il, Amn Misr al-Qawmi fi ‘Asr al-Tahadiyat, p. 49 (emphasis added).141 ENA: Egyptian Embassy, Karachi to Egyptian Foreign Ministry, No. 56, 12 October 1955.142 ENA: No. 56, 12 October 1955.143 ENA: No. 56, 12 October 1955.144 ENA: Egyptian Embassy, Delhi to Egyptian Foreign Ministry, 22 October 1955.
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