Deserters, Converts, Cossacks and Revolutionaries: Russians in Iranian Military Service 1800–1920
2012; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 48; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/00263206.2012.661371
ISSN1743-7881
Autores Tópico(s)Eurasian Exchange Networks
ResumoAbstract Russians entered Iranian military service in this period in two waves, each wave characterizing a specific period in Iranian–Russian relations. The first was subaltern in origin and came in the form of the deserters from the Russian imperial army who fled to Tabriz in the early nineteenth century and who made a significant contribution to Iranian efforts to build a modern army. The second took place in the late nineteenth–early twentieth century and consisted of representatives of the tsarist military elite, Russian Cossack officers, who came to Iran between 1879 and 1920 and formed the Iranian Cossack Brigade, and their opposites, Caucasian revolutionaries who joined the constitutional movement in order to continue their struggle against the Russian imperial regime. The article raises a series of questions, not only about the extent of Russian influence suggested by the presence of Russian soldiers, but also about its character. Why did Iran place such a high value on Russian military expertise? Who were the Russians who served in the Iranian military? How were they received in Iran? What effect did Iranian society exercise on them and to what extent did the changes transforming Russia affect the roles they played in Iran? Notes 1. In the Iranian context, the 'long nineteenth century' refers to the period from the foundation of the Qajar dynasty in 1796 to the outbreak of the constitutional revolution in 1905. 2. The significance of Abbas Mirza's formation of a unit of Russian deserters was first noticed by Muriel Atkin, see her Russia and Iran, 1780–1828 (Minneapolis, 1980), pp. 106–7. Following the 1999 translation and webposting by Mark Conrad of an article by Alexandr Kibovskii, '"Bagaderan" – Russian Deserters in the Persian Army, 1802–1839', (originally published in Tseikhgauz, no. 5, 1996), http://home.comcast.net/-markconrad/Persdes2.html (accessed 9/8/2005), the Russian deserters were the subject of some discussion at the 2005 International Qajar Studies Association annual conference at Cambridge University, entitled War and Peace in Qajar Persia, and were discussed briefly in the volume arising from that conference. See Stephanie Cronin, 'Building a New Army: Military reform in Qajar Iran', Roxanne Farmanfarmaian (ed), War and Peace in Qajar Persia: Implications Past and Present (London: Routledge, 2008), pp. 47-87 (pp. 55–6). A further treatment in English is forthcoming, Elena Andreeva, 'Russian Deserters in Iran in the Nineteenth Century'. Kibovski cites a number of Russian sources, of which the most significant is A. P. Berzhe, 'Samson Yakovlevich Makintsev i russkie begletsy v Persii, 1806–1853gg', Russkaya Starina, April, 1876, no. 4. There are a number of biographical sketches of Makintsev, mainly based on the Berzhe article, posted on the internet. See, for example, 'Samson Yacovlevich Makintsev', Encyclopedia of the Great Adventurers, http://top-actions.info/avant/1370-entsiklopediya/67671-samson-yakovlevich-makintsev.html; 'Makintsev', http://historyx.ru/brokgauz_efron4/page/makintsev.100675/. References to the deserter regiment may be found in a number of travelogues. See, for example, G. Drouville, Voyage en Perse (Paris: Librairie nationale et étrangère, 1825); James Baillie Fraser, Narrative of a Journey into Khorasan, in the Years 1821 and 1822 (London: Longman, 1825); J. H. Stocqueler, Fifteen Months Pilgrimage through Untrodden Tracts in Khuzistan and Persia, 2 vols. (London: Saunders and Otley, 1832); Arthur Conolly, Journey to the North of India, Overland from England, Through Russia, Persia, and Afghanistan, 2 vols. (London: R. Bentley, 1834); George Fowler, Three Years in Persia; With Travelling Adventures in Koordistan, 2 vols. (London: Henry Colburn, 1841); Charles Stuart, Journal of a Residence in Northern Persia and the Adjacent Provinces of Turkey (London: Richard Bentley, 1854). 3. Cronin, 'Building a New Army', p.54. 4. J. Morier, A Second Journey through Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor, to Constantinople, Between the Years 1810 and 1816 (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, 1818), p.211. 5. For the uniforms, flags and medals introduced by Fath Ali Shah and Abas Mirza see A. Kibovskii and V. Yegorov, 'The Persian Regular Army of the First half of the Nineteenth Century', Tseikhgauz, No.5 (1996), pp.20–5, Trans. M. Conrad, http://home.cmcast.net/-markconrad/PERSIA.html (accessed 11 August 2005). 6. M. Ekhtiar, 'An Encounter with the Russian Czar: The Image of Peter the Great in Early Qajar Historical Writings', Iranian Studies, Nos.1–2, Vol.29 (1996), pp.57–70. For earlier negative Iranian perceptions of Russia, see R. Matthee, 'Suspicion, Fear and Admiration: Pre-Nineteenth Century Iranian Views of the English and the Russians', in N.R. Keddie and R. Matthee (eds.), Iran and the Surrounding World: Interactions in Culture and Cultural Politics (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002), pp.121–45. 7. M. de Voltaire, The History of the Russian Empire under Peter the Great, 2 vols. (London: Printed for J. Nourse & P. Vaillant, 1763), Vol.1, p.xxiii. The contrast between the new Russia and the 'miserable state' of Iran was specifically highlighted by Voltaire, Vol.2, p.192. 8. A military corps which had become a hereditary caste by the mid-seventeenth century, which was opposed to Peter's reforms and superseded by his new regiments. 9. The Enlightenment view of the pre-Petrine backwardness of Russia and the transformative effect of eighteenth century reform survived in scholarship until relatively recently. For a critique of this view, and a proposition of a pre-Petrine 'military revolution' in Russia, see M.C. Paul, 'The Military Revolution in Russia, 1550–1682', The Journal of Military History, Vol.68, No.1 (2004), pp.9–45. 10. C.E. Bosworth, 'Barda and Barda-Dari v. Military slavery in Islamic Iran', Encyclopaedia Iranica, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/barda-v. 11. Cronin, 'Building a New Army', pp.54–60. 12. For the background to the Russo-Iranian conflict in the Caucasus see M. Atkin, Russia and Iran, 1780–1828 (Minneapolis, 1980). 13. Cronin, 'Building a New Army', p. 55. 14. The account of the deserter regiment which follows is largely based on Conrad's translation of Kibovskii. For a narrative based on Russian sources see Elena Andreeva, 'Russian deserters in Iran in the nineteenth century'. 15. Kibovskii, '"Bagaderan"'. 16. Erivan was finally ceded to Russia after Iran's second military defeat in 1828. 17. Kibovskii, '"Bagaderan"'. 18. Ibid. 19. Stuart, Journal of a Residence, p.187. 20. Kibovskii, '"Bagaderan"'. 21. Documents collected by the Caucasus Archaeographic Commission, Vol.7 (Tiflis, 1878), p.649, quoted by Kibovskii, '"Bagaderan"'. 22. Kibovskii, '"Bagaderan"'. 23. J.S. Curtiss, The Russian Army under Nicholas 1, 1825–1855 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1965), p.289. 24. Lt-Col. H. P. Picot, Report on the Organization of the Persian Army, Durand to Salisbury, 18 January 1900, FO881/7364, p. 42. 25. Ibid. 26. Ibid. 27. Stocqueler, Fifteen Months Pilgrimage, p.159; Conolly, Journey to the North of India, Vol.1, p.251. Stocqueler describes how the initial instinctive contempt for the Russian 'pork-eaters' was quickly and easily overcome while Conolly remarks on how the townspeople of Nishapur 'made much' of a Russian convert and even provided him with the means of livelihood. Stocqueler, Fifteen Months Pilgrimage, p.173; Conolly, Journey to the North of India, Vol.1, p.250. 28. Stuart, Journal of a Residence, p.187. For Prince Alexander see Lt-Gen. W. Monteith, Kars and Erzerum, with the Campaigns of Prince Paskevitch in 1828 and 1829; and an account of the Conquests of Russia beyond the Caucasus, from the time of Peter the Great to the Treatoes of Turcoman Chie and Adrianople (London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1856). 29. Kibovskii, '"Bagaderan"'. 30. Ibid. 31. Ibid. 32. Ibid. 33. This was so despite the character of the war as a jihad. 35. Kibovskii, '"Bagaderan"'. 35. Ibid; Stocqueler, Fifteen Months Pilgrimage, pp.172–3. 36. Kibovskii, '"Bagaderan"'. 37. Ibid. 38. Ibid. 39. Ibid. 40. Ibid. 41. 'Samson Yacovlevich Makintsev', Encyclopedia of the Great Adventurers, http://top-actions.info/avant/1370-entsiklopediya/67671-samson-yakovlevich-makintsev.html 42. Kibovskii, '"Bagaderan"'. 43. Ibid. Makintsev and those deserters who had remained in Iran took part in the the suppression of a rebellion in Khurasan in 1848–49. 'Samson Yacovlevich Makintsev', Encyclopedia of the Great Adventurers, http://top-actions.info/avant/1370-entsiklopediya/67671-samson-yakovlevich-makintsev.html 44. Picot, Report on the Organization of the Persian Army, p.67. 45. Kibovskii, '"Bagaderan"'. 46. Ibid. 47. Leader, especially military leader, usually elected. The term was also used for the supreme commanders of the White Cossack armies during the Russian civil war. 48. Kibovskii, '"Bagaderan"'. 49. Ibid. 50. In the course of the prolonged Russian campaign to conquer the north Caucasus in the first half of the nineteenth century, for example, Caucasian society in general, and particularly Imam Shamil, the iconic leader of resistance in the north Caucasus, encouraged, welcomed and sheltered Russian deserters. By the 1840s Shamil had received enough deserters to form small regiments of them, some of whom manned a unit of artillery. Shamil, like Abbas Mirza, gave important positions to those deserters who proved themselves trustworthy. He allowed those who converted to Islam to marry local Muslim women and to become fully integrated into local society, adopting Circassian dress. A Russian captain reported that there were many Russian deserters with Shamil who converted to Islam, married mountain women and created a happy family life. Shamil used the deserters particularly for technical roles in which local society was deficient, most notably as artillerymen and, again like Abbas Mirza, relied on a deserter to act as recruiting sergeant for further fugitives. T.M. Barrett, At the Edge of Empire: The Terek Cossacks and the North Caucasus Frontier, 1700–1860 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1999), pp.174–8; Curtiss, The Russian Army under Nicholas 1, pp.289–92. 51. Atkin, Russia and Iran, p.126. 52. M.E. Yapp, 'The Modernization of Middle Eastern Armies in the Nineteenth Century: A Comparative View', in V. Parry and M.E. Yapp (eds.), War, Technology and Society in the Middle East (London: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp.330–66. 53. Kibovskii, '"Bagaderan"'. 54. G. Best, War and Society in Revolutionary Europe, 1770–1870 (London, 1982) p.51. 55. The service record of (Lieutenant General V.V. Grushenko's) Nizhnii-Novgorod Dragoon Regiment for 1 Jan. 1800, cited by Kibovskii, '"Bagaderan"'. 56. E.K. Wirtschafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), p.38. 57. Ibid. For a description of life in the military schools, see Curtiss, The Russian Army under Nicholas 1, pp.240–41. 58. Best, War and Society in Revolutionary Europe, pp.29–46. 59. W.C. Fuller, Jr, 'The Imperial Army', in D. Lieven (ed.), The Cambridge History of Russia, 3 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), Vol.2, pp.530–3 (p.533). 60. A depiction which offers an interesting counterpoint to the image of the popular Iranian subaltern mentality represented in depictions of the Griboedov episode (see note 66). 61. Barrett, At the Edge of Empire, p.180. 62. Wirtschafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier, p.59. Conolly remarks that the deserters, though nominal Muslims, 'were not distinguished by a particular show of any religion.' Conolly, Journey to the North of India, Vol.1, p.251. 63. There appears to be only one contemporary image of the deserter regiment, a painting by Colonel Colombari, an ex-Austrian army officer of Piedmontese origin, who served Muhammad Shah. The painting is listed in Lynne Thornton, Images de Perse: Le Voyage du Colonel F. Colombari a la cour du Chah de Perse de 1833 a 1848 (Paris: J. Soustiel, Editeur, 1981). 64. Kibovskii and Yegorov, 'The Persian Regular Army'. 65. Wirtshafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier, p.3. 66. Ibid., pp.6, 18–19. 67. Conditions in, for example, the British Royal Navy, were notoriously harsh, even by the standards of the time. 68. Barrett, At the Edge of Empire, pp.42–7; see also M. Mamedov, '"Going Native" in the Caucasus: Problems of Russian Identity, 1801–64', Russian Review, Vol.67, No.2 (2008), pp.275–95; W. Sunderland, 'Russians into Iakuts? "Going Native" and Problems of Russian National Identity in the Siberian North, 1870s–1914', Slavic Review, Vol.55, No.4 (1996), pp.806–25. 69. Matthee, 'Suspicion, Fear and Admiration,' p.137; Barrett, At the Edge of Empire, pp.42–7. 70. In the late 1820s Conolly assessed the number of Russian deserters in Iran at 7–8,000, of whom about 3,000 served with the army. Conolly, Journey to the North of India, Vol.1, pp.250–1. 71. Barrett, At the Edge of Empire, p.188. 72. Curtiss, The Russian Army under Nicholas 1, p.291; Barrett, At the Edge of Empire, pp.175–6. 73. A schismatic sect which had broken away from the Orthodox Church in protest at the reforms of the seventeenth century. 74. Barrett, At the Edge of Empire, p.148. 75. The use of such inferences and assumptions raises interesting methodological questions concerning the difficulty of interpreting historical change in the absence of textual, especially archival, sources. 76. Best, War and Society in Revolutionary Europe, pp.29–46. 77. Males from the age of 20 were liable to serve first in the regular army for five years, and then in the reserve for seven. For the Ottoman system of military recruitment see E.J. Zurcher, 'The Ottoman Conscription System, 1844–1917', International Review of Social History, Vol.43, Part 3 (1998), pp.437–49. 78. Curtiss, The Russian Army under Nicholas 1, p.111. 79. Fuller, 'The Imperial Army', p.532. 80. L. Hughes, Russia in the Age of Peter the Great (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998), p. 68. 81. Wirtschafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier, pp.20–4. 82. For the bunah see E.J. Hooglund, Land and Revolution in Iran, 1980–1980 (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1982). 83. For a fuller discussion of conscription in Qajar Iran, see Cronin, 'Building a New Army', p. 65. 84. Picot, Report on the Organization of the Persian Army, p. 67. 85. The murder of the Russian Minister Plenipotentiary and most of his suite in Tehran in 1829. See L. Kelly, Diplomacy and Murder in Tehran: Alexander Griboyedov and Imperial Russia's Mission to the Shah of Persia (London: I.B. Tauris, 2002). 86. There was some Iranian suspicion that the Russians had used the Cossack displays deliberately to tempt Nasir al-Din Shah into making this request. A. Amirahmadi, Khatirat-i Nakhustin Sipahbud-i Iran, Ahmad Amirahmadi, 2 vols. (Tehran: Mu'asasah-i Pazhuhish va Mutal'at-i Farhangi, 1373), Vol.1, p.47. Even the early Qajars had been fascinated by European military uniform. Fath Ali Shah's son, Khusraw Mirza, for example, when in St Petersburg to apologize for the murder of Griboedev, was so enthralled by Russian uniforms that he insisted on wearing one for strolling and sightseeing. Kibovskii and Yegorov, 'The Persian Regular Army'. 87. Unit of military irregulars, used here in acknowledgement of the traditional irregular character of Cossack formations. 88. Cossack units retained traditional names for ranks below colonel, different to those of the regular army. 89. For the early history of the Iranian Cossack Brigade see F. Kazemzadeh, 'The Origin and Early Development of the Persian Cossack Brigade', The American Slavic and East European Review, Vol.15, No.3 (1956), pp.351–63; U. Rabi and N. Ter-Oganov, 'The Russian Military Mission and the Birth of the Persian Cossack Brigade: 1879–1894', Iranian Studies, Vol.42, No.3 (2009), pp.445–63. Two of the Brigade's Russian commanders have left memoirs: A.I. Domantovich, 'Vospominaniye o prebivanii pervoi russkoi voennoi missii v Persii', Russkaia Starina (1908), No.2, pp.331–40, No.3, pp.575–83, No.4, 211–16; V.A. Kosogovski, 'Persiya v kontsye xix vyeka'; Novii Vostok, No.3 (1923), pp.446–69; 'Ocherk razvitia persidskoi kazach'ei brigady', Novii Vostok, No.4 (1923), pp.390–420. The memoirs of Kosogovski have been translated into Persian, 'A.Q. Jali (trans.), Khatirat-i Kulunil-i Kasakufski (Tehran, 1344). 90. Rabi and Ter-Oganov, 'The Russian Military Mission', p.459. 91. The practice found frequent representation in literature. See, for example, M. Lermontov, A Hero of Our Time (London: Penguin Classics, 2003). 92. Rabi and Ter-Oganov, 'The Russian Military Mission', p457. 93. A full list of Russian commanders of the Brigade may be found in A. Jahanbani, Khatirati az Dawran-i Darakhshan-i iza Shah-i Kabir (Tehran, 1346), pp.41–2. 94. Fuller, 'The Imperial Army', p.547. The decline in the prestige and status of the imperial army officer is clearly reflected in the literature of the period. 95. R.H. McNeal, Tsar and Cossack, 1855–1914 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, in association with St. Antony's College, Oxford, 1987), pp.62–4. 96. Rabi and Ter-Oganov 'The Russian Military Mission', p.457. 97. Kazemzadeh, 'The Origin and Early Development of the Persian Cossack Brigade', p.357. 98. F. Kazemzadeh, 'Iranian Relations with Russia and the Soviet Union, to 1921', in P. Avery, G. Hambly and C. Melville (eds.), Cambridge History of Iran, 8 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), Vol.7, pp.314–49 (p.342). 99. Military Report on Persia, 1911, compiled by the General Staff, Army Headquarters, India, IOL/Mil/17/15/5. 100. S. Cronin, The Army and the Creation of the Pahlavi State in Iran, 1910–1926 (London: I.B. Tauris, 1997), p.59. 101. S. O'Rourke, The Cossacks (Manchester, 2007), p.154. 102. Ibid., p.192. 103. McNeal, Tsar and Cossack, p.220. 104. O'Rourke, The Cossacks, pp.197–202. 105. McNeal, Tsar and Cossack, p.81. 106. For the Russian presence at court see E. Andreeva, 'Russia iv. Russians at the Court of Mohammad-'Ali Shah', Encyclopaedia Iranica (2009), http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/russia-iv-russians-at-the-court-of-mohammad-ali-shah. 107. Marling to Grey, 15 July 1908, British Parliamentary Papers, 1909, p.156. 108. O'Beirne to Grey, 3 July 1908, British Parliamentary Papers, 1909, p.138. 109. The Convention had recently been negotiated in order to settle Anglo-Russian conflicts in Asia, including Iran, in the interests of cooperation against Germany in Europe. 110. V. Martin, 'Hartwig and Russian Policy in Iran 1906–8', Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.29, No.1 (1993), pp.1–21 (p.1). 111. I. Gocheleishvili, 'Introducing Georgian Sources for the Historiography of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911)', in H.E Chehabi and V. Martin (eds.), Iran's Constitutional Revolution: Popular Politics, Cultural Transformations and Transnational Connections (London, 2010), pp.59–60. 112. Gocheleishvili, 'Introducing Georgian Sources', p.46. 113. Tria, 'Kavkazskie Sotsial-Demokraty v Persidskoi Revoliutsii' (Paris, 1910), pp.9–10, quoted by Gocheleishvili, 'Introducing Georgian Sources', p.64. 114. Gocheleishvili, 'Introducing Georgian Sources', p.64. 115. Memorandum by Churchill, 16 July 1909, British Parliamentary Papers, 1910, p.103. 116. The Baharistan square located in front of the Baharistan palace which housed the Majlis. 117. Barclay to Grey, 23 July 1909, British Parliamentary Papers, 1910, p.100. 118. The present day republic of Azerbaijan. 119. A. Arkun, 'Ep'rem Khan', Encyclopaedia Iranica (1998), http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eprem-khan. 120. Liakhov's later career followed a path entirely in keeping with his political predilections. By 1912 he has become a major-general and chief of staff of the Kuban Cossacks. During the First World War he served on the Caucasus front. After the collapse of this front in 1917 he remained in the Caucasus and joined the White movement. In January 1919 the White General Denikin appointed him supreme commander of the Terek–Daghestan region. In February he became chief of the Terek Cossack Army. A little later he retired into the reserve of the Volunteer army and settled in the Georgian port city of Batumi, but was murdered in a second attempt on his life. 121. J. Clark, 'Constitutionalists and Cossacks: The Constitutional Movement and Russian Intervention in Tabriz, 1907–1911', Iranian Studies, Vol.39, No.2 (2006), pp.199–225. 122. This struggle in fact spread across the central and eastern European territories of the defeated former empires, not only the Russian but also the German and Austro-Hungarian empires. The Soviet republic of Gilan was one such formation among many which sprang up in the immediate post-War period, including in Budapest and Munich (see note 132). 123. Cronin, The Army, pp.69–70. 124. Meshed Intelligence Summary, No.28, 14 July 1917, WO157/1258. 125. Cronin, The Army, pp.69–71. 126. Akinchi was also the first newspaper in the Russian empire printed in a Turkic language. 127. List of Russian Officers in the Persian Cossack Division, October 1920, FO248/1285/70. 128. For a full account of the diplomatic complications see B. Pearce, The Staroselsky Problem 1918–1920: An Episode in British–Russian Relations in Persia (London: Centre of Near and Middle Eastern Studies, 1994). 129. For a recent account see C. Kinvig, Churchill's Crusade: The British Invasion of Russia, 1918–1920 (London: Continuum, 2006). 130. Kinvig, Churchill's Crusade, pp.xvii, 335. 131. Marling to Isfahan, Meshed and Tabriz, 14 Dec. 1917, FO248/1285/p28. 132. See Major-General L.C. Dunsterville, The Adventures of Dunsterforce (London: Edward Arnold, 1920); Colonel J.K. Tod, 'The Malleson Mission to Transcaspia in 1918', Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society, Vol.27, No.1 (1940), pp.45–67; Captain D. Norris, 'Caspian Naval Expedition, 1918–1919', Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society, Vol.10, No.1 (1923), pp.216–40; Kinvig, Churchill's Crusade, pp.13–16. 133. The Jangalis were a leftist constitutionalist/nationalist trend based in the forests (jangal) of the Caspian province of Gilan and led by Kuchik Khan. In May 1920, together with the newly-formed Iranian Communist Party and with Soviet assistance, they declared the short-lived Soviet Republic of Iran. For a full account, see C. Chaqueri, The Soviet Socialist Republic of Iran, 1920–1921: Birth of the Trauma (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995). 134. See N.M. Mamedova, 'Russia ii. Iranian–Soviet Relations (1917–1991)', Encyclopaedia Iranica, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/russia-ii-iranian-soviet-relations-1917-1991. 135. Pearce, The Staroselsky Problem, p.20; C. Chaqueri, The Soviet Socialist Republic of Iran, 1920–1921: Birth of the Trauma (Pittsburgh, 1995), pp.149–51. 136. For the Anglo-Persian Agreement see W.J. Olson, Anglo-Iranian Relations during World War 1 (London: Frank Cass, 1984), pp.224–49. 137. During the years 1917–21, unlike the constitutional period, few Caucasian revolutionaries crossed the border into Iran. Russian and Transcaucasian revolutionaries were now occupied in fighting their own, ultimately triumphant, civil war, not fleeing to Iran from defeat as had been the case in 1908. It was indeed to be the very success of the Bolsheviks in the civil war, and the increasingly pragmatic orientation of the new Soviet state, which led to the eventual sacrifice of the Gilan republic in 1921. 138. Lord Ironside (ed.), High Road to Command: the Diaries of Major-General Sir Edmund Ironside 1920–1922 (London: Leo Cooper, 1972), p.145. 139. Norman to Curzon, 13 Nov. 1920, FO248/1285/71. 140. One ex-Cossack officer, Captain Markov, who had trained as an architect in Russia before the war, became the most significant modernist architect in inter-war Iran. See also E. O'Dell, 'An Iranian–Russian Cinematic Encounter', in S. Cronin (ed.), Empires and Revolutions: Iranian–Russian Encounters since 1800 (London: Routledge, 2012). 141. General H. Arfa, Under Five Shahs (London: John Murray, 1964), pp.15, 129, 132.
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