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Cultural Nuances: Doping, Cycling and the Tour de France

2006; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 9; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/17430430500491272

1743-0445

Angela Schneider,

Doping in Sports

Abstract Many consider the Tour de France the ultimate endurance race. However, recent doping scandals and accusations within the sport have led to the concern that the doping stigmatization and problems that cycling faces are directly related to the belief that riders need to dope to complete the race. Given the types of values that are honoured in long distance road cycling, it is of little surprise that a culture of doping has emerged. The history of the Tour makes it clear, for example, that public opinions about doping do not always conform to the prohibitionist line that is publicly embraced by many officials, and this in itself is a matter of real social significance. This essay analyses the doping culture that sustains performance while destroying the body and which operates through peer pressure and secrecy, and it asserts that this type of culture is inherently unsustainable in cycling. It concludes that to defend its autonomy, its values and its survival, Tour de France organizers and riders must come to really believe that if doping is the answer – we are asking the wrong question. Notes [1] Union Cycliste Internationale, The Essence of Road Cycling Union Cycliste Internationale. 2001. The Essence of Road Cycling UCI [Google Scholar], 3–5. [2] Personal communication with a cycling official interviewed at the 2002 Tour de France. [3] The well-known, non-medically invasive, steps are as follows. Careful monitoring and control of the carbohydrate requirements is one step. Understanding the role of carbohydrates (CHO) in the human energy cycle, the use of nutritional supplements such as energy bars (e.g., Power Bar) and recovery drinks (e.g., Gatorade), that are used as means to refuel CHOs, is especially important for cyclists, who can burn over 7,000 calories in one day of competition. CHO nutritional goals for cyclists include fuel intake before an event (avoiding gastrointestinal distress), consuming CHOs during events lasting more than one hour, and promoting the replenishment of fuels after events. Heavy training and racing can deplete body CHO stores, therefore, it is essential that one consumes energy and CHOs in order to match usage. Many cyclists practice CHO intake so the body becomes accustomed to consuming CHOs at certain times of exercise and competition. There is no set pattern available since each individual reacts differently to energy exertion and energy replenishment. This means that individualized pre-event, event and post-event nutrition regimens must be developed through practice. CHO guidelines suggest that 1 to 4 g/kg of CHO should be eaten one to four hours before a race or training session, 0.5 to 1 g/kg of CHO per hour during a race, 1 g/kg of CHO per hour for the first two hours post-exercise. For max rate of glycogen replenishment, 1.2 g/kg per hour is needed. Due to the extreme changes the body experiences during such a long competition, some athletes enter competition slightly over weight to compensate for the weight loss during the competition. Since protein plays such a small role towards energy production, cyclists do not have an increased need for protein. As the general public, cyclists should follow standard food guides to receive the dietary protein requirements. However, instead of consuming the lower recommended portions for a particular category in the standard food guides, cyclist should gear toward the upper end of consumption (e.g., 5 to 12 portions of grain products, eat 12 servings instead of 5). It is recommended that they consume 0.86 g/kg of protein per day, and if a good diet is followed, protein supplements are not needed. Fluids in the human body are lost through radiation, convection, evaporation and waste excretion. When exercise is added, 500 to 3,000 ml/hour can be lost compared to the average of 2,200 ml/day. Lack of fluids can affect reduction in blood volume, decreased blood flow, decreased sweat rate, decreased heat dissipation, increased core temperature and create premature fatigue. Therefore, it is key that fluids be replaced constantly to match output because becoming thirsty means that you are already dehydrated. The ideal drink should be palatable, not cause gastrointestinal distress, contain some CHO, contain sodium, be isotonic, be cool, and not be acidic or gassy. People should drink 150 per cent of fluid loss to retain fluid balance. Some believe that education regarding caffeine and creatine should be addressed in cycling. They argue that caffeine can be a performance enhancer with its affects peaking 30 to 90 minutes after consumption. Research suggests that more than 9 mg/kg may actually hinder performance. They further argue that caffeine does increase alertness, decreases sleepiness, may reduce the perception of fatigue and pain, increases power output of muscle for a given nerve input at low frequencies, decreases potassium, and may spare muscle glycogen at the onset of exercise. The effects of decreasing potassium can be advantageous because in exercise, potassium increases, which can block nerve impulses. Therefore, the reduction in potassium can enhance muscle contraction. Furthermore, some researchers claim that contrary to popular belief caffeine does not affect urine output. Practical tips for cyclists include: if you normally drink coffee do not stop before a race because you can experience withdrawal effects; consumption before exercise may cause diarrhoea and it may cause anxiety. Caffeine exits the system within three to five hours and high doses appear to have a negative effect. It is argued by some researchers that since caffeine is being taken off the banned list (they believe because of the inconsistent testing results between athletes due to absorption and excretion rates), athletes can consume caffeine as an ergogenic aid. It is also argued that creatine, which is well known in power sports, can increase muscle mass when combined with weight training. However, these researchers maintain that while creatine is advertised for promoting use in endurance sports, which includes cycling, creatine will not improve endurance performance. They believe that the major focus for doping in cycling should be around use of erythropoietin (EPO). [4] UCI, The Essence of Road Cycling, 24. [5] UCI, The Essence of Road Cycling, 23. [6] UCI, The Essence of Road Cycling, 24. [7] Hoberman Hoberman, John. [Google Scholar] "Pharmacy on Wheels", unpublished manuscript, 2002. [8] 'I am convinced … that the vice [of doping] is inherent in the practice of elite cycling. Why? Because much of a rider's behavior involves bluffing his opponent, getting him into difficulty, exposing him to the wind … in a word, fooling him! By a kind of natural extension, certain riders are inclined to see doping as a permissible strategy.' Quénet, Le procès du dopage Quénet, Jean-François. 2001. Le procès du dopage: La vérité du jugement, Paris: Solar. [Google Scholar], 142. [9] For example, interviews like a 1969 interview of a five-time Tour de France champion (who is viewed by many as one of the greatest of the modern professional cyclists) are used to explain it. The athlete reports: 'I dope myself. Everyone [who is a competitive cyclist] dopes himself. Obviously, we can do without them in a race, but then we will pedal 15 miles an hour [instead of 25]. Since we are constantly asked to go faster and to make ever greater efforts, we are obliged to take stimulants.' Gilbert, 'Something on the Ball' Gilbert, B. 30 June 1969. Something on the Ball. Sports Illustrated, : 32 [Google Scholar], 32. Similarly, in 1977 a rider claimed, 'People talk so much about doping … But if you don't take anything these days, then you're not going to get anywhere', 'Intern Dynamit', Der Spiegel 27 (30 June 1980): 183. [10] Personal communication with a participant at the Tour de France, 2002. [11] Hoberman "Pharmacy on Wheels", unpublished manuscript, 2002. [12] 'We were accused that all dope – tarred with the same brush after scandal from 1998. I quit because of that and the risk of harm of getting hit by a truck on the road. The clubs were strongly affected by the scandal too – all accused of doping.' Personal communication with a former rider who quit and was watching the 2002 Tour de France. [13] 'In 1997 I stopped cycling because of pressure to dope. There is less of a problem now in cycling. The problem is the former dopers that are coaching and managers, old riders who did use doping.' Personal communication with a former rider at the 2002 Tour de France. [14] 'Bei meiner Ehre' (By My Honour), Süddeutsche Zeitung (9 July 2001). [15] 'Es gibt zwei Zeugen' (There are Two Traits), Süddeutsche Zeitung (22 June 2001) and 'En sport fyldt med rullende avtaler', Politiken (21 June 2001). [16] 'Es gibt zwei Zeugen', Süddeutsche Zeitung (22 June 2001). [17] 'It is a tradition in cycling that the rider wearing the yellow jersey gives the day's victory to those who have been riding with him. It's a gentleman's agreement, as when Pantani gave Ullrich the victory on the Col de la Madelaine in 1998, and when Armstrong gave Pantani the victory on Mont Ventoux. But there is no way that money changed hands. Selling victories is not an established practice in cycling.' 'Vorwurf der Bestechlichkeit gegen Ullrich' (The accusation has been confirmed against Ullrich), Süddeutsche Zeitung (21 June 2001). [18] 'What happens is that the rider wearing the leader's jersey gives the stage victory to one of the rivals who have been sharing the work, and this is one of the unwritten rules of the sport. The race leader is in a good position and can allow himself to give something to others. And he does it, because he knows it creates a kind of sympathy.' 'Ære til den ene, penge til den anden', Politiken (21 June 2001). [19] 'There are those who think that cycling is a corrupt sport … We do not feel this way. We think it is a wonderful and fascinating sport that contains a very high degree of justice that has been built into it … its unwritten rules and moral concepts can be difficult to understand for anyone who has not grown up in it or lived one's way into its world. Because there is, of course, a morality and an ethics in cycling, and there are limits one does not cross.' 'Du kan ikke købe dig til noget, du ikke er', Politiken (25 June 2001). [20] Møller, Dopingdjævlen Møller, Verner. 1999. Dopingdjævlen – analyse af en hed debat, Copenhagen: Gyldendal. [Google Scholar], 92. [21] Personal communication with a spectator at the 2002 Tour de France. [22] 'Ten days from now in the Pyrenees, there will be as many spectators as ever. The admirable and performances will prevail over everything else.' 'Ein Sprengsatz bedroht die ganze Tour', Süddeutsche Zeitung (13 July 1998). 'We want the Tour, the riders want the Tour, and the spectators to whom we are obligated want it to go on. Even if the intellectuals in Paris may not understand.' '"Ich fühle mich wie ein Idiot"' ("I felt like an idiot"), Süddeutsche Zeitung (3 Aug. 1998). [23] Møller, Dopingdjævlen, 137–8. [24] The general director of the Société du Tour de France offered a solemn statement of principle: 'It is a question of credibility and ethics', he said only days after the scandal broke. Most noteworthy was the statement that, 'The Tour must remain clean'. 'Ein Sprengsatz bedroht die ganze Tour', Süddeutsche Zeitung (13 July 1998). [25] For example, it is claimed that one manager of the accused team claimed, 'Our success has nothing to do with doping'. '"Ich fühle mich wie ein Idiot"', Süddeutsche Zeitung (3 Aug. 1998). Additionally, the team's head physician said, 'I'm there to take care of the athletes and their health … I am against doping. Let justice take its course.' Ibid. [26] Hoberman, "Pharmacy on Wheels", unpublished manuscript, 2002. [27] Hoberman [28] Barthes, 'The Tour de France as Epic' Barthes, Roland. 1979. "The Tour de France as Epic". In Mythologies, New York: Hill Wang. [Google Scholar], 79–80, 87. [29] Hoberman [30] Barthes, 'The Tour de France as Epic', 86–8. [31] Barthes, 'The Tour de France as Epic', 83. [32] David Walsh, 'Saddled with Suspicion', Sunday Times [London] (8 July 2001). [33] Hoberman, "Pharmacy on Wheels", unpublished manuscript, 2002. [34] Møller, Dopingdjævlen, 111. [35] Møller, Dopingdjævlen [36] Møller, Dopingdjævlen, 113. [37] Møller, Dopingdjævlen, 111. [38] Hoberman, "Pharmacy on Wheels", unpublished manuscript, 2002. [39] Hoberman [40] 'You can't understand, you're not part of the scene; in cycling, you don't say "doping".' Quénet, Le procès du dopage, 30. [41] 'There are a lot of stupid guys in cycling … You really have to question whether they have any ethics at all. Before 1998 Tour you could understand why people were taking drugs, but since then we've crossed the line. We've got to the point where we can say "OK, let's stop it". It's become a moral issue. Before it could be called professionalism, now it's just plain cheating and that's what gets me down.' Andrew Longmore, 'Cycling – Time to stop cheating, pleads Millar', The Independent (27 June 1999). [42] Hoberman, "Pharmacy on Wheels", unpublished manuscript, 2002. This was also found to be the case during the 2002 Tour, when only one rider and one team physician suggested that this should be done. [43] 'Nearing 43, Still at Top Speed', New York Times (28 Oct. 2001). However, Hoberman has pointed out that the athlete in question, Longo, has been accused of doping more than once over the course of her long career. [44] 'One of the remarkable aspects of the physicians' self-image is their constant boasting about their moderating influence, at the same time that they claim to be helpless when confronted with the prevailing [societal] conditions.' Singler and Treutlein, Doping – von der Analyse zur Prävention Singler, Andreas and Gerhard, Treutlein. 2001. Doping – von der Analyse zur Prävention, Aachen: Meyer & Meyer Verlag. [Google Scholar], 40–1. [45] 'It is this punishing schedule which largely sustains the tolerance of doping within cycling and, if we are seriously concerned about the health of professional cyclists, then reducing the physical demands made upon cyclists ought to be the first priority.' Waddington, Sport, Health and Drugs Waddington, Ivan. 2000. Sport, Health and Drugs: A Critical Sociological Perspective, London: E & FN Spon. [Google Scholar], 168. Additional informationNotes on contributorsAngela J. SchneiderAssociate Professor in Kinesiology at the University of Western Ontario in London, Ontario.