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‘A Second Liberation’: Lobbying for Women's Political Representation in Zambia, Botswana and Namibia

2006; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 32; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/03057070500493787

1465-3893

Gisela Geisler,

African history and culture studies

Abstract The article looks at the efforts of women's movements in southern Africa to claim a stake in formal politics as an avenue to pursue their specific demands. After decades of exclusion, the importance of political representation was first realised by the women's movement in Zambia on the eve of the first democratic elections. The article looks at the failures of women's movements in one-party states in building fruitful alliances with women in political party movements, compares the strategies and varying experiences and successes of lobby groups in Zambia, Botswana and Namibia, and suggests that to achieve more equitable gender legislation, women in politics and in the women's movement should form an alliance that targets political parties directly. Notes 96 P. Govender, ‘Farewell and Thank You’, ANC Documents (Speeches), 30 May 2002 (available at www. anc.co.za). 95 ‘Hero's Welcome as Good Delivers Paper’ Mmegi/TheReporter, 14 February 2005. 94 ‘Honk at Own’, Times of Zambia, 25 July 2003. 93 Personal information, Lusaka May 2002. 92 The Oasis Declaration, 21 February 2001 (Lusaka 2001). 91 Bull, ‘Gender Dimensions’. 90 ‘Sister Namibia Denies COD Links’, New Era (Windhoek), 23 August 2004. 89 SWAPO Women's Council has a long history of discouraging the formation of women's umbrella organisations which are not dominated by SWAPO women; H. Becker, Namibian Women's Movement 1980–1992 (Frankfurt, IKO Verlag 1995); G. Geisler, Women and the Remaking of Politics in Southern Africa (Uppsala, Nordic Africa Institute, 2004). 88 Quoted in ‘Campaign to Increase Women's Participation in the Democratic Political Process in Namibia. Phase 1: March to December 1999’ (draft report, Windhoek, n.d.). 87 Informal interview, Windhoek, May 2000. 86 ‘SWAPO Calls for Separation of Gender, Homosexuality Issues’, Panafrican News Agency, 7 October 2002. 85 Interview, Lusaka, 4 February 1994. 84 ‘Sisterhood in Disarray’, Mmegi/The Reporter, 26 July 1994. 83 Interview, Gaborone, 5 July 1994. 82 Mbikusita-Lewanika, ‘Facing the Challenges’, p. 158. 81 Interview, Gaborone, July 1994. 80 ‘Embattled Nawakwi still under Siege’, Times of Zambia, 4 December 2001. 79 M.M. Bull, ‘Gender Dimensions of Multiparty Politics’, African Social Research (December 2000/June 2001). 78 Mbikusita-Lewanika, ‘Facing the Challenges of Politics’, in M. Nalumango and M. Sifuniso (eds), Women Power in Politics (Lusaka, Zambia National Women's Lobby Group, 1998), p. 158. 77 Interview, Gaborone, July 1994. 76 Interview, Gaborone, 7 July 1994. 75 Interviews, Gaborone, July 1994. 74 Interview, Gaborone, 5 July 1994. 73 Quoted in The Gazette, 27 October 1999. 72 ‘Women Hopeful about Gender Parity’, Mmegi/The Reporter, 22 September 2005. 71 ‘The Year 1999 May Well Be Remembered as the Year of the Women’, The Gazette, 27 October 1999, p. 5. 70 Botswana National Front, Manifesto for The General Elections 1994 (Gaborone, BNF, 1994). 69 UNDP/The African-American Institute, African Women in Politics: Together for Change. Three Struggles for Political Rights (New York, UNDP/ The African-American Institute, 1995), p. 5. 68 Republic of Botswana, Report of the Law Reform Committee on (i) Marriage Act, (ii) Law of Inheritance, (iii) Electoral Law and (iv) Citizenship Law (Gaborone, Republic of Botswana, June to December 1986). 67 Emang Basadi, ‘Political Empowerment of Women. Emang Basadi's Women's Programme for the 1994 General Elections’ (mimeo, Emang Basadi, n.d.). 66 Interview, Windhoek, 7 January 1994. 65 O. Mokone, ‘Dow Case – Law To Be Made Gender Neutral’, Botswana Gazette, 3 May 1995. 64 ‘Anti-Women Law May Be Coming. Labour Ministry Urges Referendum’, Botswana Gazette, 3 February 1993. 63 C. Brown, ‘The Unity Dow Court Case: Liberal Democracy and Patriarchy in Botswana’ (paper presented to the Canadian Association of African Studies, 14 May 1992); Human Rights Watch/Africa, Botswana. Second Class Citizens. Discrimination against Women under Botswana's Citizenship Act (New York, Human Rights Watch, Women's Project, 1994), p. 7. 62 Quoted in ‘Citizenship Act on the Balance’, Mmegi/The Reporter, 9 November 1990. 61 N.S. Rembe, ‘Emang Basadi: Women, Sex Discrimination and the Constitution of Botswana’, Lesotho Law Journal, 6, 2 (1991). 60 The Women's Watch (International Women's Rights Watch), 5, 5 (1991). 59 Interview, Gaborone, 8 July 1994. 58 J. Kimble and A. Molokomme, ‘Gender and Politics in Botswana: Some thoughts on the 1984 Elections’, (paper prepared for the Election Study Workshop, University of Botswana, Gaborone, 16–19 May 1985)Ibid., p. 11. 57 J. Kimble and A. Molokomme, ‘Gender and Politics in Botswana: Some thoughts on the 1984 Elections’ (paper prepared for the Election Study Workshop, University of Botswana, Gaborone, 16–19 May 1985), p. 21. 56 Liatto-Katundu, ‘The Women's Lobby and Gender Relations in Zambia’, p. 82. 55 Interview, Lusaka, May 2002. 54 Zambia National Women's Lobby Group, Monthly Lobby Bulletin, 5 April 2001 and Lobby News, 5 December 2002. 53 Informal interview. 52 Government of Zambia, National Gender Policy (Lusaka, Government of Zambia, 2000). 51 ‘Gender Discrimination Rages on in Zambia’, Pan-African News Agency, 2 December 1999. 50 Fergusson and Ludwig, ‘Special Study on Gender’, p. 30. 49 Interviews, Lusaka, January and February 1994. 48 Fergusson and Ludwig, ‘Special Study on Gender’, p. 30. 47 Interview, Lusaka, 4 February 1994. 46 ‘Editorial’, Times of Zambia, 16 March 1992. 45 ‘CNU, Women's Lobby are “Embittered” Groupings’, Weekly Post, 8–14 May 1992. 44 ‘MMD Hotheads Expelled’, Times of Zambia, 27 April 1992. 43 A. Fergusson and K. Ludwig, ‘Special Study on Gender and Democratisation in Zambia’ (Washington and Lusaka, Democratic Governance Project [Monitoring and Evaluation], 1995), p. 32. 42 ‘Chiluba Blasts 2 Pressure Groups’, Times of Zambia, 13 April 1992. 41 ‘Editorial’, Sunday Times, 19 April 1992. 40 ‘Is Lobby Group Non-Partisan?’, Times of Zambia, 24 March 1992. 39 Interview, Lusaka, 26 January 1994. In 1995 it was reported that women made up only 2 per cent of the 1,300 councillors elected in Zambia. ‘Gender Discrimination Rages on in Zambia’, PANA News Agency, 2 December 1999. 38 Interview, Lusaka, 24 January 1994. 37 Times of Zambia, 27 April 1992. 36 ‘Brief Account of the NGOs’, Petition to the President, Mr Frederick Chiluba, at State House, on Women's Rights and Development, 27 March, 1992' (mimeo, Lusaka, 17 April 1992). 35 Longwe and Clarke, ‘A Gender Perspective’, p. 115. 34 ‘Women Petition Chiluba: Honour Election Manifesto’, Daily Mail, 20 March 1992. 33 S. Longwe and R. Clarke, ‘A Gender Perspective on the Zambian General Election of October 1991’, in B.A. Andreassen, G. Geisler and A. Tostensen, Setting a Standard for Africa? Lessons from the 1991 Zambian Elections (Bergen, Chr. Michelsen Institute, 1992) p. 107. 32 Interviews, Lusaka, January and February 1994. 31 Times of Zambia, 16 December 1991. 30 ‘Lobby Group Hitches Listed’, Daily Express, 15 October 1991. 29 Quoted in B. Liatto-Katundu, ‘The Women's Lobby and Gender Relations in Zambia’, Review of African Political Economy, 56 (1993), p. 80. 28 ‘Meeting Disrupted’, Times of Zambia, 17 September 1991. 27 Times of Zambia, 26 October 1991. The notion of the American connection of NWLG emerged as its members worked with the National Democratic Institute in an effort to monitor the 1991 elections. 26 ‘Laurah Speaks Out’. 25 Interview with NWLG executive member, Lusaka, 11 January 1994. 24 ‘Women Set Up Lobby Group’, Zambia Daily Mail, 22 July 1991. 23 ‘Laurah Speaks Out for People's Rights’, The Weekly Post, 19 November 1993. 22 Interview, Lusaka, January 1994. 21 Daily Mail, 16 March 1991. 20 Interviews, Lusaka, 24 January and 4 February 1994. 19 ‘Women Still Dance at Airports’, Sunday Times of Zambia (Lusaka), 23 February 1992. 18 B. Keller, ‘Struggling in Hard Times: The Zambian Workers' Movement’, Issue: A Journal of Opinion, 17, 2 (1989), p. 18. 17 ‘Is UNIP for Elite Women?’, Sunday Times of Zambia, 28 July 1985; ‘Elitist Women Shun the League’, Times of Zambia, 25 January 1986. 16 For a more detailed account see G. Geisler, Women and the Remaking of Politics in Southern Africa. Negotiating Autonomy, Incorporation and Representation (Uppsala, Nordic Africa Institute, 2004). 15 G. Geisler, ‘Sisters under the Skin: Women and the Women's League in Zambia’, Journal of Modern African Studies, 25, 1 (1987), pp. 43–66. 14 I. Schuster, ‘Constraints and Opportunities in Political Participation. The Case of Zambian Women’, Geneve-Afrique, 21, 2 (1983), p. 17. 13 D. Kandiyoti, quoted by Waylen, ‘Analysing Women in the Politics of the Third World', p. 18. 12 A. Mama, ‘Postscript’, in A. Imam, A. Mama, F. Sow (eds), Engendering African Social Sciences (Dakar, CODESRIA, 1997), p. 418. 11 G. Waylen, ‘Analysing Women in the Politics of the Third World’, in H. Afshar (ed.), Women and Politics in the 3rd World (London, Routledge, 1996), p. 11. 10 Sékou Touré, quoted in K. Little, African Women in Towns (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 1973), p. 64. 9 K. Staudt, ‘Women's Politics, the State, and Capitalist Transformation in Africa’, in I.L. Markovitz (ed.), Studies in Power and Class in Africa (New York, Prentice Hall, 1977)Ibid., p. 208. 8 K. Staudt, ‘Women's Politics, the State, and Capitalist Transformation in Africa’, in I.L. Markovitz (ed.), Studies in Power and Class in Africa (New York, Prentice Hall, 1977), p. 208. 7 N. Chazan quoted in Allen, ‘Gender, Participation and Radicalism’. 6 K. Staudt quoted in C. Allen, ‘Gender, Participation, and Radicalism in African Nationalism: Its Contemporary Significance’, in R. Cohen and H. Gouldbourne (eds), Democracy and Socialism in Africa (Boulder, CO, 1991), p. 213. 5 G. Mikell, ‘African Feminism: Towards a New Politics of Representation’, Feminist Studies, 21, 2 (1995)Ibid., p. 409. 4 G. Mikell, ‘African Feminism: Towards a New Politics of Representation’, Feminist Studies, 21, 2 (1995), p. 409. 3 D. Elson, ‘Male Bias in Macro-Economics: The Case of Structural Adjustment’, in D. Elson (ed.), Male Bias in the Development Process (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1991). 2 A.M. Tripp, ‘Explaining “Civil Society”: Women and Political Space in Contemporary Uganda’, in N. Kasfir (ed.), Civil Society and Democracy in Africa. Critical Perspectives (London, Frank Cass, 1988), p. 93. 1 Interview, Harare, 21 July 1995.