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History of Ecological Sciences, Part 51: Formalizing Marine Ecology, 1870s to 1920s

2014; Ecological Society of America; Volume: 95; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1890/0012-9623-95.4.347

2327-6096

Frank N. Egerton,

Isotope Analysis in Ecology

Click here for all previous articles in the History of the Ecological Sciences series by F. N. Egerton This part is the fourth in a sequence of histories of ecological sciences that arose from the 1870s into the 1920s, the previous ones being on plant ecology, animal ecology, and limnology (Egerton 2013b, 2014a, Egerton b). However, since marine ecology is a part of oceanography as well as being an ecological science, its history is more complex than that of the other three, and consequently, this part is also much longer and more complex than the other three. None of the other three have international congresses on their history every few years, with resulting volumes of papers being published. Marine ecology arose from three developments during the 1870s: founding of marine biological stations in Europe and America, voyages of research, especially H.M.S. Challenger, and plankton research, initiated at the University of Kiel. "Mac" McIntosh (1985:49–57) provided a bibliographical guide to the history of marine ecology. Eric Mills' Biological Oceanography: An Early History, 1870–1960 (1989) is actually limited in scope to the history of plankton research. Marine ecology history is mostly embedded within the context of the history of oceanography, which has an extensive literature (including Herdman 1923, Idyll 1969, Schlee 1973, Ward 1974, Sears and Merriman 1980, Lenz and Deacon 1990, Vanney 1993, Deacon 1997a, Mills 2000, Benson and Rehbock 2002, Morcos and Zhu 2004, Groeben 2013). Of interest is John Murray, chapter 1. "A Brief Historical Review of Oceanographical Investigations" (Murray and Hjort 1912:1–21, with 12 portraits). A few small marine biology stations arose before 1870, but a major impetus for their development was the example set by Anton Dohrn founding his Stazione Zoologica in Naples in 1873. Voyages to explore marine life began in the 1840s, but were only occasional and of short duration until H.M.S. Challenger's 3.5-year voyage, 1872–1876. The existence of plankton had been known before Victor Hensen named it and connected it to the fate of northern European fisheries; that connection made it seem worthy of sustained intensive research. The impetus of these three developments plus a decline in fish populations led to the founding in 1902 of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), which transcended European national Atlantic marine research limitations. ICES inspired the founding of the Commission Internationale pour l'Exploration Scientifique de la Méditerranée. Commercial fisheries science also progressed beyond Europe, and the American story is also discussed. However, rather than discuss the first part of the careers of William Beebe and Henry Bigelow here, both are deferred to part 58. Alister Hardy's career also extended beyond the 1920s, but with a briefer discussion than planned for Beebe and Bigelow, his account provides an ending for this part 51. In 1910, two American zoologists, Charles Kofoid (1865–1947) and Chancey Juday (1871–1944), independently and apparently unaware of the other's project, published accounts of European aquatic biological stations, fresh and saltwater. Kofoid's is a book for which the U.S. Bureau of Education had provided a grant enabling him to survey Europe's marine stations, 1908–1909, which he did in preparation for planning such a station for the University of California (Goldschmidt 1951:127, Mullen 1973, Shor 1974, Burgess 1996:62, Day and Mills 2013:237–238). Juday's report is a 20-page article + 4 plates. Both are illustrated with photographs of station buildings. Since their accounts only extend to 1910, we also need to consult later guides. T. Wayland Vaughn edited and partly wrote International Aspects of Oceanography (1937), on oceanographic institutions. Homer Jack compressed a Ph.D. dissertation at Cornell (1940) into Biological Field Stations of the World (1945), with a few illustrations and references for almost all stations. Robert Hiatt compiled Directory of Hydrobiological Laboratories and Personnel in North America (1954) and World Directory of Hydrobiological and Fisheries Institutions (1963), both containing photographs of buildings, station grounds, and ships. C. M. Yonge (1956) published a brief world survey of marine stations. Patrick Scaps's Histoire de la Biologie marine (2005:73–88) has a chapter on early stations. Margaret Deacon (1993) has discussed foundation of marine stations in Britain during the later 1800s, from the standpoint of funding and other factors relating to their establishment and success. A few small stations opened before 1870, but most opened after 1870 (Yonge 1956, Benson 1988a, b, c, Dexter 1988, Maienschein 1988, Kohler 2002:42–44, Deacon 2003). Kevin Eckelbarger gave a recent very brief historical perspective (2007). Proceedings of international congresses on oceanographic history provide sketches of other stations (Sears and Merriam 1980, Lenz and Deacon 1990, Morcos and Zhu 2004). Johan van Bennekom (2013) discussed the history of European marine stations before 1900. Professor of Zoology Pierre-Joseph van Beneden (1809–1894), University of Louvain, established the first marine research station in 1843 at Ostend, Belgium, on his in-laws' oyster farm, which he named Laboratoire des Dunes (Florkin 1970, Houvenaghel 1980:668–669, Ellis 2005:22, Scaps 2005:79, Chalier 2013:107). It attracted biologists from Belgium, France, and Germany. It was overshadowed in 1859 when Victor Coste (1807–73), from Collège de France, founded the first coastal station in France at Concarneau (Hiatt 1963:73). In 1883, Beneden's son, Edouard (1846–1910) founded another station at Ostend, which may have been where the elder Beneden's student, G. Gilson (1859–1944), began his studies about 1900 (Houvenaghel 1980:669). Later, Gilson became head of the Musée Royal d'Histoire Naturelle in Brussels, and in 1927, that museum took over Gilson's laboratory at Ostende and named it Institut d'Etudes Maritimes (Vaughn 1937:104–105, Hiatt 1963:15). Surprisingly—since it is in far-eastern Europe—Ukraine (in the Russian Empire) developed one or two stations as early as 1871. Alexandru Bologa (2004:211) cited development of a station at Odessa in that year, initiated by three members of the Novorossiisk County Naturalists' Society (Alexander O. Kovalevskyi, Ilya Mechnikov, Ivan Sechenov), who attached it to Novorossiisk University; yet, Yuri Tokarev (2004:223) denied this claim, stating that the Sevastopol Biological Station (SBS) was the one established in 1871, attached to that university. The editors of both papers suggested that two stations may have been established in 1871. If so, however, the Sevastopol station overshadowed the Odessa one, which presumably faded away. It is also surprising that SBS's director in 1878–1888 was a woman, Sofia M. Pereiaslavtseva, who afterwards remained there as chief zoologist (Bologa 2004:211). The early goal of the station was simply to inventory the marine species of plants and animals. In 1890 and 1891, Nikolai Andrusov organized exploratory voyages to extend the inventory into deep seas. In 1892 the station came under supervision by the Russian Academy of Sciences. Sergei Zernov (1871–1945), who headed SBS in 1902–14, "created the Russian school of hydrobiology and established the chair in this domain at the Moscow Agricultural University" (Tokarev 2004:225). Zernov "extended the scope of the research from zoology to ecology and ethology" (Bologa 2004:211). Kofoid began his country-by-country accounts with a detailed account of Stazione Zoologica, Naples, Italy (1910:7–32 + 8 plates), founded by German zoologist F. Anton Dohrn (1840–1909). Such attention was justified both because of its own scientific achievements and its influence on the building of other stations. Dohrn had studied at Jena under Gegenbaur and Haeckel (Vaughn 1937, Ward 1974:137–141, Oppenheimer 1978, 1980, Groeben 1985, Heuss 1991:35–36). In 1867 he visited David Robertson on Great Cumbrae Island in Scotland's Firth of Clyde, where he realized the advantage of residing on the coast to study marine life (Allen 1976:209). In 1868 he traveled to Messinia, Sicily and studied early development of crustacea in aquaria (Heuss 1991:74–79). In 1871 he settled in Naples and obtained city land in a park on Naples Bay, where he built a zoological station (Dohrn 1872, Juday 1910:1275–77, Heuss 1991:114–120). He had to raise money to build and maintain it, but coming from a wealthy family, and making it an international enterprise—even Darwin contributed books and money (Groeben 1984:61, Heuss 1991:212)—he succeeded in building the foremost marine zoology station in the world (begun in 1872 and opened in 1873) which attracted researchers from Europe and America (Herdman 1923:135–144, Ghiselin 2008, Slack 2010:63–69). It contained research tables that were for rent at the equivalent of U.S.$500 per year. Various governments and institutions rented them (Ebert 1985:173–174), and an account of Russian scientists who studied there (Groeben and Fokin 2013) is undoubtedly a story which was similar for other countries. The station built a public aquarium that attracted tourists in Naples, who were charged admission (Heuss 1991:294–295). Dohrn succeeded in attracting a capable staff to assist researches, and as its popularity grew, he expanded its buildings and equipment (Hiatt 1963:104–105). Despite being named a zoological station, an active program in the study of micro- and macro-algae began four years after it opened (Tomas 1985); in 1888 Dohrn built a new building for a Department of Physiology (Ghiretti 1985). The station created three sets of publications to publish researches accomplished there: Zoologischer Jahresbericht, begun 1879, with annual summaries written by various specialists; Mitteilungen aus der Zoologischen Station zu Neapel, begun 1879, for less extensive researches on Mediterranean flora and fauna; and Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel, with colored lithographs, 31 issues being published by 1908 (Kofoid 1910:20). The Mitteilungen's name was changed in 1916 to Publicazioni della Stazione Zoologica di Napoli (Reidl 1980:4). The station also collected and exported specimens to marine biologists elsewhere, and it still maintains an excellent archive (Groeben 2002). Dohrn's report of activities during 1879–1880 included an account of his trip to Kiel to see and try out a scaphander for underwater exploration, and upon returning to Naples, he obtained one from the Italian Navy, which he and several assistants used to explore underwater during two years. However, as the Bay of Naples became polluted, his station confined its research to the laboratories (Reidl 1980:5–7). (a) Felix Anton Dohrn. Web. (b) Stazione Zoologica, Naples, about 1875. Groeben 1984:61. For other stations Kofoid provided less information. The country with the greatest number of stations which he discussed was France (Kofoid 1910:48–143; also, Josquin Debaz's Ph.D. dissertation, 2005), and the largest of 19 French stations which he described was founded by zoology professor Félix-Henri de Lacaze-Duthiers (1821–1901), of the Sorbonne, in 1872, a marine laboratory at a fishing village, Roscoff, in western Brittany (Kofoid 1910:95–104 + 3 plates, Juday 1910:1268–70, Appel 1973, Théodoridès 1990, Matagne 1999:203–204), which later received a research vessel, Le Dentale, from l'Association française pour l'Avancement des Sciences. By 1880, it accommodated 17 biologists, and in 1881, the station became affiliated with laboratories of the Faculté des Sciences in Paris, and later was named Laboratoire Lacaze-Duthiers (Juday 1910:1268–1269, Jack 1945:46, Hiatt 1963:74–75). Upon Lacaze-Duthiers' death, he was succeeded by his associate at the station since 1878, Professor Yves Delagne (1854–1920), an experimental physiologist (Tétry 1971). The station grew under able leadership and could accommodate over 100 students and investigators by 1908. Lacaze-Duthiers was a cofounder in 1872 of Archives de Zoologie experimental et générale, which published many of the monographs produced at Roscoff. In 1881 Lacaze-Duthiers also established Laboratoire Arago Banyuls-sur-Mer on the Mediterranean coast (Hiatt 1963:72–73). Kofoid devoted 10 pages to Monaco's Institut Oceanographique, on the Mediterranean (Juday 1910:1271–1272, Kofoid 1910:37–47, Herdman 1923:119–133, Jack 1945:53–54, 135, Hiatt 1963:135, Deacon 1971:382, 391, 392, Schlee 1973:132–137, Mills 2009:162–191). Prince Albert I (Honoré Charles Grimaldi, 1848–1922) served for a time in the Spanish navy, and in 1873 he bought a schooner, mastered navigation, and in 1885 began oceanographic research that lasted for the rest of his life (Petit 1970, Mills 1983:48–58, 1989:116–117). He enlisted the services of Scottish chemist John Buchanan (1844–1925), who had served on the Challenger Expedition, who became Albert's close collaborator until World War I (Kutzbach 1970, Carpine-Lancre and McConnell 2013). Albert conducted research from several vessels, beginning with Princesse-Alice (Doumenge 1997), and in 1887 he sailed to the Azores, where he met Afonso Chaves (1857–1926), who had a military career, but had become interested in sciences relating to the Azores; Albert and Chaves became fast friends for life (Martins 1997). In 1906 Albert attempted, unsuccessfully, to organize an international oceanographic congress to meet in Monaco (Carpine-Lancre 1980). In 1910 he opened the Musée Oceanographique de Monaco which displayed biological specimens (Mills and Carpine-Lancre 1992), and in 1911 he opened the Institut Océanographique in Paris for teaching and research. Its director, Professor Paul Portier (1866–1962), University of Paris, supervised over 100 Ph.D. dissertations (Monnier 1975:101, photo; Day and Mills 2013:250). Albert also founded two publications, an institute Bulletin and Annales. Although inspired by Dohrn's Stazione Zoologica, Albert was also responding to the slow development of oceanography and marine biology in France (Mills 1983:48–58, 2009: chapter 6). In 1886, the Spanish Navy launched Spain's first oceanographic expedition, using "the outdated frigate Blanca" (Morcos et al. 2013:269). A doctoral student at the University of Madrid, Odón de Buen (1863–1945), became the expedition naturalist, and that experience changed the direction of his interests. He received his Ph.D. in 1887, and in 1889 he became Professor of Zoology at the University of Barcelona until 1911, when he returned to the University of Madrid as Professor of Natural History. While at Barcelona, he frequently visited Professor Henri de Lacaze-Duthiers' marine Laboratoire Arago at Banyuls-sur-Mer, France. The influence of Lacaze-Duthiers and his marine laboratory were important guidance for Buen when establishing the Laboratorio Biológico-Marino (1906) at Porto Pi, Majorca. In 1908, he began corresponding with Jules Richard, Albert's collaborator, who became head of Albert's Institut Océanographique (1911), and subsequently Buen also corresponded with Albert (Morcos et al. 2013:270–271). Albert's example also inspired King Carlos I de Bragança of Portugal (r. 1889–1908) to study oceanography (Saldanha 1980, 1997, Carpine-Lancre and Saldanha 1992, Amorim 2009:53–55). He had earlier stayed informed about oceanographic explorations in or near Portuguese waters (Deacon 1997b). In 1896, he used his own vessel, Amélia, to begin oceanographic research in Portugal's coastal waters, and he later graduated to three more ships, all named for his queen, which enhanced his investigations. His scientific colleague was Albert A. A. Girard, of French ancestry, who had grown up in Portugal and worked at the Lisbon zoology museum (Ramos 2006:180). Their biological collecting was accompanied by environmental measurements of ocean waters. Carlos was particularly interested in fisheries; a transition was underway from sailing to steam fishing vessels, with the latter having a greater harvesting potential. He studied the Portuguese tuna fishery by distributing questionnaires to owners of fixed nets in 1899 and published his findings. He also published in 1904 a monograph on sharks in Portuguese waters. His assassination prevented the publication of all of his findings, and he left no oceanographic tradition or institution. Portugal's most prominent zoologist of the time was not Girard, but José du Bocage (1823–1907), from the Atlantic island of Madeira, who had studied at the University of Coimbra, and became a professor at Lisbon Polytech, later renamed the Science Faculty, University of Lisbon and head of the Museum of Natural History (Saldanha 1990:169, Deacon 1997b:67–78). Bocage is most remembered zoologically for a controversy concerning a sponge Hyalonema lusitanica Bocage, which closely resembled a Japanese species. He also became a prominent statesman. (a) Albert I of Monaco (in white hat and shoes) and orca on his yacht. Web site. (b) Carlos I of Portugal. Web site (standing, in color). (a) José Vicente Barboza du Bocage (1823–1907). Saldanha 1990:169. (b) Augusto Pereira Nobre. Web. Another outstanding Portuguese zoologist at the time of Carlos I was Augusto Nobre (1865–1946), born into a wealthy family in Oporto, who was educated in Portugal, at the Sorbonne in Paris, and at the Station de Biologie Marine de Sète, University of Montpellier (Almaça 1997). In 1890 he returned to one of the places where he had studied in Portugal, the Oporto Polytechnic Academy, and in 1891 he organized a Department of Zoology and a university museum. In 1914 he established a Marine Zoology Station at Foz do Douro, and he published accounts of Portugal's marine invertebrates and fishes. Northern Germany experienced a different organizational situation than elsewhere. Kiel is on Kiel Bay, joined by a canal between the North Sea and Baltic Sea. Kiel had Christian-Albrechts Universität, and in 1870, the German state founded there a Kommission zur wissenschaftlichen Untersuchung der deutschen Meere (Kofoid 1910:219–221, Mills 1989:14, 1990:20–21). This commission established observation stations that were used by zoologists on the university faculty. Details of this activity are discussed below under Plankton Studies. There were also other stations being established in Germany (Kofoid 1910:217–246, Roll 1990). The station at Helgoland (founded 1892) was particularly important for zoological, ecological, and fisheries research (Bulnheim 1990). Early directors were Friedrich Heincke (1892–1921) and Wilhelm Mielck (1921–33). The station began publishing Wissenschaftliche Meeresuntersuchungen in 1894. Other important research was conducted by the zoologists at the Naturhistorisches Museum at the University of Hamburg (Scheele and Hünemörder 1990). Stations Roll outlined were within Germany; however, the Berlin Aquarium opened a collecting station at Trieste on the Adriatic Sea in 1870, and, because of pollution, moved it to Rovinj in 1891, expanding its scope to include research (Zavodnik 1990). Like Albert I and Carlos I, Friedrich Alfred Krupp (1854–1902), monarch of a German industrial empire, used his own ships for biological exploration in the Mediterranean Sea, from his villa on the isle of Capri (Müller 1990). Salvatore Lo Blanca (1860–1910), from Stazione Zoologica, published Krupp's findings. The Plymouth group's view of how the plankton cycle was controlled in the sea crystallized during the late 1930s and 1940s into a virtually paradigmatic qualitative model involving biological, chemical, and physical processes that took place mainly at temperate latitudes… MBA retained world leadership in plankton dynamics studies until 1958 (Ellis 2005:32). In 1892, two other fisheries laboratories opened, at Liverpool and at Port Erin, and later another at Lowestoft (Mills 1989:197–201). (a) Edgar Johnson Allen. Web site. (b) Plymouth Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association. Web. In 1889, Petersen worked the Danish Station, a barge which could be towed from place to place. The Gatty Laboratory at S. Andrews started work in 1892, as did the Liverpool University laboratory at Port Erin in the Isle of Man. Hjort set up a laboratory at Drøbak on the Oslofjord in 1897. The Scottish Fishery Board came into being in 1882 and the Marine Laboratory was built in Aberdeen in 1898. Prince Albert constructed his Monaco laboratory in 1899. Vera Schwach (personal communication) provides some more precise details: The University of Oslo established the station at Drøbak, with Hjort as director (Sømme 2001); in 1897, the Kristianiafjord had not yet been renamed Oslofjord. Marine biology stations in western Europe. (a) 1843–1873. (b) 1874–1883. (c) 1884–1900. Van Bennekom 2013:126–127. Russia had at least six biological stations founded before 1911, some of which were freshwater (Jack 1945:59–60). Russian Konstain Saint-Hilaire (1866–1941) was the son of zoologist Karl Saint- Hilaire (1834–1901), who had taught at the St. Petersburg's Main Teacher Institute (Goryashko and Fokin 2013). As a student and later, Konstain worked at various European biological stations, and in 1903 he became Professor of Zoology at Juriew University (now University of Tartu, Estonia). In 1911 he established a peripatetic marine station in the village of Kovda on the White Sea's Kandalaksha Bay. It lasted there for thirty years without ever having a permanent home. It nevertheless was the locus of both teaching and research. Juriew University was occupied by German troops in 1918, and the Russian Revolution was also disruptive of station activities. All of Saint-Hilaire's scientific papers and research were destroyed in German attacks during World War II. Romania lacked a marine station until 1926, when Professor Ioan Borcea (1879–1936), who had a doctorate in biology from the Sorbonne (1905), and who taught at Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, founded a Marine Zoological Station on the Black Sea coast at Agigea (Serpoinau and Malciu 2002:273–274, Bologa et al. 2013). Borcea died from septicemia at Agigea, but two years later Homer A. Jack visited the station (5 December 1938) and concluded that "this is an extremely successful zoological station and assuredly, it accomplishes its mission of being a leading station in the Balkans" (quoted in Bologa et al. 2013:175; Jack 1945:56). In the United States, where controversy raged over causes of decline in fisheries, Spencer F. Baird (1823–1887) got Congress to create the U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, with him as Commissioner (with no pay beyond his salary at the Smithsonian Institution), in 1871 (Allard 1967:78–86, Smith 1994:44–47, Egerton 2011:156). The U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries was America's first conservation agency (Hobart 1995:4). Baird sponsored research at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, where he took his family in summer to escape the humid heat of Washington (Allard 1967:64–65, Pauly 1988:128, Rivinus and Youssef 1992:141–151). Woods Hole had been a whaling port, from about 1815 to about 1860, and later was home of Pacific Guano Works (Galtsoff 1962:1–6). In 1871, Baird brought with him to Woods Hole Professor Addison E. Verrill (1839–1926) of Yale University, whom Baird asked to survey the animals and their distributions in Martha's Vineyard Sound (Coe 1932, Hedgpeth 1957:4–5, Verrill 1958, Shor 1976, Dexter 1997b). His survey resulted in publication of a substantial report (Verrill 1873). In five or six years, Verrill collected there hundreds of thousands of specimens of over 2000 species (Verrill 1958:65–69, Rivinus and Youssef 1992:89). The Commission erected a fish hatchery at Woods Hole in 1882, with hatchery ship Fish Hawk, and in 1883 built a research vessel, Albatross, "which continued to serve science until 1921, [and] probably did more significant work in oceanic research than any other vessel" (Galtsoff 1962:38–50l, Allard 1967:340, Spencer 2002:288–290). (Schwach [personal communication] is skeptical of Allard's claim for Albatross' importance, if he meant worldwide, and research was done by scientists aboard, not by the ship itself.) The Commission built a Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole in 1885, influenced by Dohrn's laboratory in Naples (Hiatt 1954:141–142, 1963:246, Schlee 1973:67–73). Although it was the northeastern fisheries crisis that prompted Baird's actions, he knew that it had to be a national agency in order to win Congressional support, and he also sponsored a survey of the Great Lakes fishery (Allard 1967:107–109). After Baird died in 1887, fish hatchery activities overshadowed research (Galtsoff 1962:54). In 1916, a U.S. Fishery exploration trip discovered good quantities of tile fish and introduced the fishery to commercial fishermen and introduced it as a food to the public (Herdman 1923:309–310). The U.S. Bureau also persuaded fishermen to market dogfish sharks as gray-fish, which made them acceptable to the public. The Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL) was founded at Woods Hole because the U. S. Biological Laboratory was there. It was inspired by the example of the Naples Stazione Zoologica, though the importance of that example has possibly been over-emphasized by some historians (Benson 1988b). The sparkplug was a philanthropist making available Penikese Island with buildings, near Woods Hole, to Louis Agassiz (Egerton 2011:165–166) for a summer school for teachers of natural history, which opened in 1873 (Lillie 1944:15–22, Lurie 1960:379–381, Maienschein 1989:8–12). The school was a success, and among the 28 men and 16 women who attended were: Alpheus Hyatt, a founder of MBL; David Starr Jordan, later leading ichthyologist and president of two universities; and Charles Otis Whitman, a founder, and first director, of MBL (all three are discussed below). (a) Baird supervising marine collections. (b) U.S. Fish Hatchery, Woods Hole. Schlee 1973:68, 71. Louis Agassiz died in December, 1873, and his son, Alexander Agassiz (1835–1910), who became America's foremost oceanographer (Murray 1911, Goodale 1912, Agassiz 1913:129–130, Dohrn 1913, Herdman 1923:99–118, Lane 1969:47–49, Dupree 1970, Ward 1974:152–167, Lurie 1999, Dobbs 2005:114–119), organized the school for summer 1874, though the double shock of having his father and his wife die a few days apart in December 1873 left him psychologically unable to run it. Alexander had been born in Switzerland, where his mother died of tuberculosis in 1848, and he had come to Boston in 1849, joining his father (Lurie 1960:152, 170). He spoke no English, but was nevertheless enrolled in the Cambridge High School to prepare for college (Agassiz 1913:14–15). His father taught natural history there, and physics and chemistry were also well taught. He entered Harvard in 1851, age 15. He graduated in 1855 and entered the Lawrence Scientific School and earned a master's degree in engineering (1857), and another master's degree there in zoology (1862). He worked at Harvard's Museum of Comparative Zoology with his father (Winsor 1991:134–146), but decided he could not raise a family on his salary. In 1866 he traveled with several Bostonians to the Upper Peninsula in Michigan to inspect two copper mines and then bought shares in them (Agassiz 1913:57–85). Those controlling the mines asked him to run them, which he did, 1866–1868, and eventually he became a millionaire. In 1874, he and a brother-in-law bought land on Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, and built houses there; Agassiz's included a laboratory where he could study marine animals (Agassiz 1913:151–156). Alpheus Hyatt (1838–1902), from Washington, D.C., studied under Agassiz at Harvard (Brooks 1909, Mayer/Mayor 1911, Gould 1972). He graduated in 1862 and joined the Union Army during the Civil War. Afterwards, he married (1867), and became part-time professor of zoology and paleontology at the Massachusetts Institution of Technology, 1870–1888. In 1870 he was also elected curator of the Boston Society of Natural History and remained its scientific head until he died. In 1877 he additionally became professor of biology at Boston University. In 1883, he helped organize the American Society of Naturalists and served as its first president. He conducted research on invertebrates, living and fossil (Dexter 1968). He studied bryophytes, gastropods, and evolution, and was an American cofounder of neo-Lamarckism. In 1879 he established a marine biological laboratory in his summer home at Annisquam on Cape Ann, Massachusetts (Dexter 1952, 1956), and in 1880 he had a schooner-yacht, Arethusa, built for collecting and studying animals along the shores of New England, Newfoundland, and Labrador, for himself and students (Hyatt 1954). In 1882 the laboratory moved to a small building at Lobster Cove, but there was some pollution there and Baird persuaded him to move it to Woods Hole in 1887, where it was reorganized into the Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole (Lillie 1944:26–33, Hiatt 1954:95–96, Dexter 1980, Maienschein 1985, 1989). (a) Alexander Agassiz. Web page, middle age. (b) Alpheus Hyatt. Brooks 1909 or online. (c) William Keith Brooks. Conklin 1913:facing 25. Online. William K. Brooks (1848–1908) graduated from Williams College in 1870, attended Agassiz's Summer School of Natural History on Penikese Island in 1873, studied under Alexander Agassiz, and received his Harvard Ph.D. in 1875 (Conklin 1913, Edds 1970). He then joined the faculty of Johns Hopkins University, founded 1876, where he served as head of the Biology Department, 1894–1908. He studied the morphology of marine invertebrates. He received university funds to run a summer Chesapeake Zoology Laboratory, 1878–1906, which was the first research marine station in America (Benson 1985:193). Despite its name, it moved in most summers from one place to another, from Massachusetts to Jamaica. This summer station was quite successful—15 major articl