Independence or Not? Paul V. McNutt, Manuel L. Quezon, and the Re-examination of Philippine Independence, 1937–9
2010; Routledge; Volume: 32; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/07075332.2010.507355
ISSN1949-6540
Autores Tópico(s)Hong Kong and Taiwan Politics
ResumoClick to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Acknowledgements An early version of this article was presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations in 2009. Salisbury University, the J. Willam Fulbright Board in Washington, D.C., and the Louise McNutt Endowment at Indiana University in Bloomington all provided financial support for this project, as did the Roosevelt and Truman presidential libraries. The author thanks Dean J. Fafoutis and the anonymous referees at International History Review for their comments. Notes 1 S. Delmendo, The Star-Entangled Banner: One Hundred Years of America in the Philippines (Quezon City, 2005), 10 (both quotations). 2 P. A. Kramer, The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States and the Philippines (Quezon City, 2006), 302. 3 Although the story of McNutt, Quezon, and the re-examination of Philippine independence has not been plumbed in depth - in, say, a scholarly article - one interpretation is that Quezon was ‘using’ McNutt to send up a ‘trial balloon.’ C. Quirino, Quezon: Paladin of Philippine Freedom (Manila, 1970), [Manila], [National Library of the Philippines (henceforth NL)], Goquingo Collection, reel 68, and F. H. Golay, Face of Empire: United States-Philippine Relations, 1898–1946 (Quezon City, 1997), 373. Others think that it was McNutt and the publisher Roy W. Howard who persuaded Quezon to consider a continuation of US sovereignty. See Theodore Friend, Between Two Empires: The Ordeal of the Philippines, 1929–1946 (New Haven, 1965), 188. The re-examination issue is covered briefly in H. W. Brands, Bound to Empire: The United States and the Philippines (New York, 1992), 171–2 and L. E. Gleeck, Jr., The American Half-Century (1898–1946) Revised Ed. (Quezon City, Philippines, 1998), 400–1. It is not discussed at all in S. Karnow, In Our Image: America's Empire in the Philippines (New York, 1989). 4 Kramer, Blood of Government, 389 (quotation). The literature about the US Empire is immense, continues to grow, and would require a historiographic essay to do justice to. Examples of early works that examined - and, one could argue, exposed - the economic basis, intellectual justification, and cultural dimensions of US imperial power include W. LaFeber, The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion, 1860–1898 (Ithaca, 1963), vii, 60–1, 176–96 and E. S. Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1890–1945 (New York, 1982), 7–13. A useful overview of the literature, and a call to use the rubric of empire to reinvigorate US diplomatic history, is E. P. Crapol, ‘Coming to Terms with Empire: The Historiography of Late-Nineteenth-Century American Foreign Relations,’ Diplomatic History, xvi, No. 4 (1992), 573–97. The acquisition of colonies by the United States following the Spanish-American War was clearly an exercise in imperialism, but some scholars also have applied the concept of empire to the continental (eighteenth and nineteenth centuries) and global (twentieth and twenty-first centuries) periods of US history. See W. Nugent, Habits of Empire: A History of American Expansion (New York, 2008), xiii–xvii, 217–20, 301–4, 313–17 and T. McCormick, ‘From Old Empire to New: The Changing Dynamics and Tactics of American Empire’, in Alfred W. McCoy and Francisco A. Scarano (eds), Colonial Crucible: Empire in the Making of the Modern American State (Madison, 2009), 63–79. Also helpful is N. Ferguson, Colossus: The Price of America's Empire (New York, 2004), 7–26. Some scholars, however, remain reluctant to apply term ‘empire’ to the United States. See C. S. Maier, Among Empires: American Ascendancy and Its Predecessors (Cambridge, MA, 2006), 66–70 and J. Suri, ‘The Limits of American Empire: Democracy and Militarism in the Twentieth and Twenty-first Centuries,’ in Colonial Crucible, 523–31. 5 By describing US imperialism, in the areas of governance and metropolitan–colonial relations, as ‘distinct’ and ‘distinctive’ from other empires, I am avoiding using the word ‘exceptional’ which, as recent scholars have suggested, conveys a religiously-ordained benevolence (and virtue) on US foreign policy. See J. Hoff, A Faustian Foreign Policy From Woodrow Wilson to George W. Bush (New York, 2008), 14–17 and W. L. Hixson, The Myth of American Diplomacy: National Identity and U. S. Foreign Policy (New Haven, 2008). A good distinction between ‘exceptionalism’ and ‘difference’, in comparing national histories, can be found in M. Adas, ‘From Settler Colony to Global Hegemon: Integrating the Exceptionalist Narrative of the American Experience into World History’, American Historical Review, cvi, No. 5 (2001), 1702–3. As A. W. McCoy, Francisco A. Scarano, and Courtney Johnson put it, succinctly and accurately, ‘each empire is distinct’ in the ‘statecraft’ it employs. See their essay, ‘On the Tropic of Cancer: Transitions and Transformations in the U.S. Imperial State,’ in Colonial Crucible, 5. For examples of the comparative approach which explore similarities as well as differences between empires, see P. A. Kramer, ‘Empires, Exceptions, and Anglo-Saxons: Race and Rule between the British and United States Empires, 1880–1910,’ Journal of American History, lxxxviii, No. 4 (2002), 1315–53 and J. M. Fradera, ‘Reading Imperial Transitions: Spanish Contraction, British Expansion, and American Irruption,’ in Colonial Crucible, 34–62. A good overview of the comparative approach, in relation to US imperialism, can be found in Julian Go, ‘Introduction: Global Perspectives on the U. S. Colonial State in the Philippines,’ in Julian Go and Anne Foster (eds), The American Colonial State in the Philippines: Global Perspectives (Manila, 2005), 13–16. 6 L. E. Gleeck, Jr., Dissolving the Colonial Bond: American Ambassadors to the Philippines, 1946–1984 (Quezon City, 1988), 378–80. 7 McNutt, it should be pointed out, was not a reflective person and, partly as a result, we learn much more about him from his speeches than from his letters which - those that still survive - are often stilted. Scholars who have used the Quezon Papers may remember that many were torn or water-stained - casualties of the Second World War and substandard archival work. But he, too, did not leave behind a trove of deeply revealing correspondence. 8 Friend sees the effort to re-examine Philippine independence as brief while Gleeck and Golay assert that it lingered for months. See Friend, Between Two Empires, 190; Gleeck, American Half-Century, 401; Golay, Face of Empire, 373. 9 J. H. Madison, Indiana through Tradition and Change: A History of the Hoosier State and Its People 1920–1945 (Indianapolis, 1982), 134–5, 151. 10 Henry A. Wallace Diary, 1 February 1940, [Iowa City, University of Iowa Libraries] Henry A. Wallace Papers. 11 L. L. Gould, ‘Paul Vories McNutt’, in John A. Garraty (ed), Dictionary of American Biography, Supplement Five 1951–1955 (New York, 1977), 460. 12 I. G. Blake, Paul V. McNutt: Portrait of a Hoosier Statesman (Indianapolis, 1966), 1–8. 13 P. Von Blon, ‘The Hoosier Schoolmaster’, American Legion Monthly (January 1929), 48. 14 H. Zink, ‘Paul V. McNutt’, in J. T. Salter (ed), The American Politician (Chapel Hill, 1938), 62–76. 15 J. T. Patterson, The New Deal and the States: Federalism in Transition (Princeton, 1969), 153 (first quotation); J. H. Madison, Indiana through Tradition and Change: A History of the Hoosier State and Its People 1920–1945 (Indianapolis, 1982), 415, (second quotation). 16 Golay, Face of Empire, 47 (all quotations). 17 See Victor Buencamino, Jr. to Manuel L. Quezon, no date [ca. 1914], [Washington, D.C., Library of Congress, Manuscript Division (henceforth LC)] Burton [Norvell] Harrison and Family Papers, folder: Quezon, Manuel L. 1912–1915, box 28; Brands, Bound to Empire, 116. 18 N. Cullather, Illusions of Influence: The Political Economy of United States-Philippine Relations 1942–1960. 19 Joseph Ralston Hayden to J. Weldon Jones, March 25, 1937, [Independence, Missouri, Harry S. Truman Library (henceforce HSTL)] [J. Weldon] Jones Papers, box 6. 20 Quezon to Francis Burton Harrison, no date [ca. 1921], Burton Harrison Family Papers, folder: Quezon, Manuel L. 1921–1930, box 28; J. K. Lane, Armed Progressive: General Leonard Wood (San Rafael, 1978), 258 (quotation). 21 Golay, Face of Empire, 230–72. 22 Cullather, Illusions of Influence, 9–14. 23 Francis B. Sayre to Murphy, 25 Feb. 1937, LC, Francis B. Sayre Papers, box 5. 24 See ‘Our Legion Commander’, Kokomo Dispatch, 3 Dec. 1926, [Bloomington, Lilly Library, Indiana University, Bloomington (henceforth LL)], [Paul V.] McNutt Papers, folder: 1926 Newspaper Clippings, box 25. For the ideology of the Legion, see W. Pencak, For God and Country: The American Legion, 1919–1941 (Boston, 1989), 2–23, 144–69, 236–77. 25 ‘Indiana's Defense Attitude’, Indianapolis News, 16 Nov. 1926, McNutt Papers, folder: 1926 Newspaper Clippings, box 25. 26 Paul V. McNutt, Speech at Purdue University, 11 Nov. 1925, McNutt Papers, box 14. 27 McNutt to J. Frank Lindsey, 27 Nov. 1929, McNutt Papers, box 5. 28 Paul V. McNutt, ‘Speech Delivered Before the Annual Convention, Department of Minnesota, American Legion’, 8 Aug. 1927, McNutt Papers, box 14. 29 Paul V. McNutt, Speech at Purdue University, 11 Nov. 1925, McNutt Papers, box 14. 30 McNutt to W. J. Patterson, 17 Nov. 1928, McNutt Papers, box 4 31 McNutt to Lindsey, 7 Oct. 1926, McNutt Papers, box 2. 32 McNutt said that the US government had to respect the ‘expressed will of the majority’ on issues of the League of Nations and World Court. McNutt to Lindsey, 27 Nov. 1929, McNutt Papers, box 5. 33 McNutt dismissed the treaty as a ‘gesture.’ McNutt to Newman T. Miller, 2 Nov. 1928, McNutt Papers, box 4. 34 ‘Draft Capital, Urges M'Nutt’, Detroit News, 15 Dec. 1929, McNutt Papers, folder: 1929 Newspaper Clippings, box 25. 35 McNutt to Lindsey, 7 Oct. 1926, McNutt Papers, box 2. 36 ‘With an Open Mind’, Philippines Free Press, 27 Feb. 1937, 20. 37 FDR quoted in James A. Farley Diary, 7 Mar. 1937, [Washington, D.C., Library of Congress, Manuscript Division] James A. Farley Papers, box 41 (quotation); Carleton B. McCulloch to Meredith Nicholson, 5 March 1937, [Indianapolis, Indiana Historical Society], Carleton B. McCulloch Papers, box 1. 38 ‘With an Open Mind’, Philippines Free Press, 27 Feb. 1937, 20. 39 Paul V. McNutt to C. S. Johnston, 16 April 1937, McNutt Papers, box 9. 40 Hayden to Jones, 25 March 1937, Jones Papers, box 6. 41 ‘McNutt In Favor of Diversifying Philippine Crops’, Manila Bulletin, 10 March 1937, 1. 42 ‘Won't Scuttle P.I.—McNutt’, Manila Bulletin, 1 April 1937, 1. 43 ‘“No Axe to Grind” In Manila Post, Says New Commissioner,’ Manila Bulletin, 19 Feb. 1937, 1. 44 ‘The High Commissioner’, Manila Bulletin, no date (ca. February 1937), Hayden Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, folder 21, box 9, 45 ‘McNutt Choice Praised Here’, Philippine Tribune, 19 Feb. 1937, Hayden Papers, folder 21, box 9. 46 ‘McNutt Appointment Confirmed’, Philippines Herald, 24 Feb. 1937, 1. When an American pacifist argued against McNutt's nomination, on grounds that he would build up the Philippine Army and thus militarize the Islands, the Philippines Herald defended both the army and the nominee. ‘McNutt Hit by Pacifists in Note to FD’, Philippines Herald, 22 Feb. 1937, 1. 47 McNutt to Johnston, 16 April 1937, McNutt Papers, box 9. 48 ‘MLQ Doesn't Know AHC’, Philippines Herald, 19 Feb. 1937, 1. The best Quezon could do was to praise McNutt for having made ‘a good governor’ of Indiana. ‘Quezon Scoffs Japan “Menace” to Free Islands’, Manila Bulletin, 20 Feb. 1937, 1. 49 Memorandum of conversation between Quezon, Sayre, and Jacobs, 3 March 1937, N[ational] A[rchives], C[ollege] P[ark, Maryland]. [General Records of the Department of State], R[ecord] G[roup] 59, file# 811B.001/84, box 5292, Decimal File 1930–1939. 50 R. Trota Jose, ‘Advocate of Independence: Manuel L. Quezon and the Commonwealth, 1935–1944’ in Rosario Mendoza Cortes (ed), Philippine Presidents: 100 Years (Quezon City, Philippines, 1999), 110–11; T. A. Agoncillo, ‘No Finer Paladin: Manuel L. Quezon in Profile’ in Bernardita Reyes Churchill (ed), History and Culture, Language and Literature: Selected Essays of Teodoro A. Agoncillo (Manila, 2003), 289–91. 51 P. N. Abinales, ‘Progressive-Machine Conflict in Early-Twentieth-Century U. S. Politics and Colonial State Building in the Philippines’, in Go and Foster (eds), The American Colonial State in the Philippines, 152–4. 52 V. Boudreau, ‘Methods of Domination and Modes of Resistance: The U. S. Colonial State and Philippine Mobilization’, in Go and Foster (eds), The American Colonial State in the Philippines, 266. 53 Nacionalista Party, ‘Declaration of Principles’, no date, NL, [Manuel L.] Quezon Papers, box 266, series VII, (first quotation); Boudreau, ‘Methods of Domination and Modes of Resistance’, 267 (second quotation). 54 Friend, Between Two Empires, 187 (quotations). 55 P. N. Abinales and D.J. Amoroso, State and Society in the Philippines (Pasig City, Philippines, 2005), 137–43. 56 Golay, Face of Empire, 166. 57 Brands, Bound to Empire, 147. 58 Golay, Face of Empire, 166. 59 Quezon to Harrison, 15 Aug. 1913, Burton Harrison Family Papers, folder: Quezon, Manuel #1, box 42 and Quezon to Harrison, 4 March 1921, Burton Harrison Family Papers, folder: Quezon, Manuel L. 1921–1930, box 28. Theodore Roosevelt, Jr., another Governor-General, was ‘led about’ by Quezon. W. Cameron Forbes Journal, 8 May 1933, LC, W. Cameron Forbes Journals Volume 4: 1929–1934, 369. 60 Quezon to Harrison, 2 Apr. 1928, Burton Harrison Family Papers, folder: Quezon, Manuel L. 1921–1930, box 28. 61 George A. Malcolm to Edward J. Kemp, 5 Nov. 1936, Eleanor Bumgardner Papers Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, box 1. 62 Abinales and Amoroso, State and Society in the Philippines, 148. 63 Boudreau, ‘Methods of Domination and Modes of Resistance’, 270–86. 64 Agoncillo, ‘No Finer Paladin’, 293. 65 Celestina Puyal Boncan, ‘The Period of Political Tutelage, 1901–1935’, in Philippine Presidents, 98–100; Agoncillo, ‘No Finer Paladin’, 293. 66 Jose, ‘Advocate of Independence’, 108. 67 Leonard Wood Diary, 28 April 1922, LC, [Leonard] Wood Papers, reel 1 (diaries). 68 Wood Diary, 23 Jan. 1921 (quotation) and Wood to John W. Weeks, 31 March 1922, both in Wood Papers, reel 1 (diaries). 69 Agoncillo, ‘No Finer Paladin’, 280. 70 S.H. Gwekoh, Manuel L. Quezon: His Life and Career (Manila, 1948), 188, Goquingo Collection, reel 66. 71 Agoncillo, ‘No Finer Paladin’, 288. 72 Newspaper clipping, ‘Why I Love Quezon’, no date, [Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines, Main Library], [University of the Philippines, (henceforth UP)], [Sol] Gwekoh Papers, box 440. 73 The US Consul in Hong Kong relayed these comments, made by Quezon, to Washington. See Howard Donovan to Cordell Hull, 6 April 1937, file# 811B.001/113, box 5292, Decimal File 1930–1939, RG 59, NACP. 74 Gwekoh, Manuel L. Quezon, 192. 75 Agoncillo, ‘No Finer Paladin’, 288. 76 Wood Diary, 3 July 1923, Wood Papers, reel 2 (diaries). Quezon no doubt said this but Wood, an opponent of Philippine independence, had every reason to record it in his diary. 77 See Wood to Weeks, 31 March 1922 and Wood Diary, 10 May 1921 - both in Wood Papers, reel 1 (diaries). 78 Wood Diary, 3 July 1923, reel 2 (diaries). 79 Wood Diary, 22 Jan. 1922, Wood Papers, reel 1 (diaries). Wood's successor as Governor-General, Henry L. Stimson - another Republican - also backed a Canadian-style dominion status for the Philippines. R. H. Ferrell, American Diplomacy in the Great Depression: Hoover-Stimson Foreign Policy (New Haven, 1957), 253. 80 Friend, Between Two Empires, 58. 81 ‘Quezon Speeches During his Campaign in the United States’ attached to Wood Diary, 31 Jan. 1923, Wood Papers, reel 2 (diaries). 82 Go, ‘Introduction’, 6. 83 When Quezon began discussing, in earnest, ‘dominion status’ in the late 1930s, he cited the fact that this arrangement would be appropriate for his people because they ‘were the only Christian people in the Orient’. Memorandum of conversation between Quezon, Sayre, and Jacobs, 3 March 1937, file# 811B.001/84, box 5292, Decimal File 1930–1939, RG 59, NACP. He also saw the Philippines Muslim (or ‘Moro’) population in a manner analogous to how the white leadership of the United States, Canada, and Australia had seen their aboriginal populations: as ‘uncivilized non-Christians’. Kramer, Blood of Government, 372. 84 At other times, Quezon voiced a version of what might be termed ‘Filipino exceptionalism’ whereby the Philippines, due to its Asian location and Western heritage, was positioned, by the ‘designs of Providence’, to serve as a bridge between East and West. See Translation of Quezon's speech at Xochimilco, Mexico, April 9, 1927, file# 811B.001/103, box 5292, Decimal File 1930–1939, RG 59, NACP. 85 Brands, Bound to Empire, 161–3. 86 A. W. McCoy, ‘Quezon's Commonwealth: The Emergence of Philippine Authoritarianism,’ in Ruby R. Paredes (ed), Philippine Colonial Democracy (Quezon City, 1989), 114–57. 87 Malcolm to McNutt, July 6, 1937, McNutt Papers, box 9. 88 M.L. Quezon, ‘The Elimination of Partisanship in a Democracy’, an address at Far Eastern University, Manila, 17 Aug. 1940 in M.L. Quezon, Addresses of His Excellency Manuel L. Quezon, President of the Philippines on the Theory of Partyless Democracy (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1940), 47 (first and second quotations) and 53 (third quotation); [Manila, Philippines, Jose P. Laurel Foundation Library], [Jose P.] Laurel Papers, series 12, box 24, folder 12. 89 Vargas to Jose Luna Castro, 11 Aug. 1938, Quezon Papers, box 333, series VII. 90 The High Commissioner received a nineteen-gun salute, as any ambassador would, while Quezon got twenty-one guns, the traditional greeting for heads of state. ‘Personal Salutes’, no date, Burton Harrison Family Papers, box 39; Golay, Face of Empire, 344. 91 Cordell Hull to Franklin D. Roosevelt, February 12, 1937, file#811B.001/74, box 5292, Decimal File 1930–1939, RG 59, NACP. 92 Narrative of McNutt's first stint as High Commissioner, no date, folder: Articles for Administrator (personal), box 1, Information Files, Records of the Administrator of the Federal Security Agency, RG 235, NACP. 93 Homer S. Cummings Diary, 2 Feb. 1934, [University of Virgina, Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library, Charlottesville], Homer S. Cummings Papers, box 234. 94 Brands, Bound to Empire, 147. 95 Quezon, Agoncillo noted, made ‘inconsistency a virtue’ and, partly as a result, he was able to retain ‘the loyalty of men of diverse ideologies and interests’. Agoncillo, ‘No Finer Paladin’, 281. 96 Forbes Journal, 15 Jan. 1934, Forbes Journals, Volume 4: 1929–1934, 384. 97 Friend, Between Two Empires, 50. 98 S. Mistica, Manuel L. Quezon: A Character Sketch (Manila: University of Santo Tomas Press, 1948), 72, reel 70, Goquingo Collection. 99 Mistica, Manuel L. Quezon, 73. 100 Friend, Between Two Empires, 58. 101 McCoy, ‘Quezon's Commonwealth’, 114–15; Agoncillo, ‘No Finer Paladin’, 302. 102 As Claro M. Recto, a Filipino nationalist, explained, ‘Quezon loved power, and he knew how to keep it … He knew when to wait, and when to dash in for the prize … He knew when to command, and when to obey.’ Agoncillo, ‘No Finer Paladin’, 301–2. 103 Hayden to Jones, 25 March 1937, Jones Papers, box 6. 104 S. Fine, Frank Murphy: The New Deal Years (Chicago, 1979), 156. 105 It is true that the US President could delegate to the High Commissioner any power granted him under Tydings–McDuffie, but the President had to do so explicitly. ‘The Role of the AH Commisisoner’, Commonwealth Advocate (Manila, Philippines), November (Second Half) 1936, 39–40. 106 Golay, Face of Empire, 343–4. 107 FDR to McNutt, 1 March 1937, folder: Instructions for High Commissioner, box 6, Records of the Manila Office of the United States High Commissioner to the Philippine Islands, 1935–1946, Records of the Office of Territories, RG 126, NACP. 108 Jorge B. Vargas to Quezon, 25 May 1937, Quezon Papers, folder: Radiograms Vol. II (1937), box 152, series VII. 109 Narrative of McNutt's first stint as High Commissioner, no date, folder: Articles for Administrator (personal), box 1, Information Files, Records of the Administrator of the Federal Security Agency, RG 235, NACP (all previous quotations). 110 See H.S. Johnson, ‘“Face” and Brains’, New York World-Telegram, 24 May 1937, Social Security Administration Archives, Baltimore, Maryland, Revolving Files: Paul V. McNutt. 111 ‘Commissioner’, Philippines Free Press, 6 June 1937, 22. 112 R. Clapper, ‘McNutt's Demand for Social Precedence No Laughing Matter’, Washington Daily News, 22 May 1937, 2. 113 ‘Commissioner McNutt's “Toasting Incident” Actions Proper, but Misunderstood’, Indianapolis Times, 16 Aug. 1937, [Indianapolis, Indiana State Library] Indiana Clipping File, folder: Ind. Biography—McNutt, Paul V. Philippines. 114 L. E. Gleeck, Jr., The American Governors-General and High Commissioners in the Philippines: Proconsuls, Nation-Builders and Politicians (Quezon City, 1986), 330 (first quotation), 365 (second quotation). 115 ‘Quezon Lights Cigarette for McNutt; Expected Fight Becomes Love Fest’, Indianapolis Star, 8 Sept. 1937, Indiana Clipping File, folder: Ind. Biography—McNutt, Paul V. Philippines. 116 Quezon to McNutt, 16 Sept. 1937, [Norfolk, Virginia, MacArthur Memorial Archives], Douglas A. MacArthur Papers, folder 5, box 1, RG 1—Military Advisor to the Philippine Commonwealth, (quotations). 117 F. B. Harrison, Origins of the Philippine Republic: Extracts from the Diaries and Records of Francis Harrison Burton, Michael P. Oronato (ed) (Ithaca, 1974), 174. 118 Videotaped Testimony of Manuel L. Quezon III, Center for Holocaust and Humanity Education, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio. 119 Paulino Misa Capitulo interview with the author, 29 Sept. 2008, Manila, Philippines. One photograph showed McNutt and Quezon seated on a sofa, with the High Commissioner laughing. Retrato Photo Archive, Filipinas Heritage Library, Makati City, Philippines, Photo# FP00653. 120 McNutt to Howard, 11 Dec. 1937, Library of Congress [Roy W.] Howard Papers, folder: 1937 Philippines, box 133. 121 Quezon to Howard, 24 Oct. 1937, Howard Papers, folder: 1937 Philippines, box 133 (first quotation) and Quezon to Howard, 13 May 1939, Howard Papers, folder: 1939 Philippines, box 158 (second quotation). 122 Once, after completing a round of poker, the High Commissioner discovered that he had lost 10,000 pesos to Quezon. Quezon urged McNutt to keep it, as a ‘contribution’ to his ‘presidential campaign fund’. Mistica, Manuel L. Quezon, 30. 123 ‘A Michigan Mussolini, Perhaps’, Lansing (Michigan) Journal, 30 Jan. 1933, [Indianapolis, Indiana State Archives (ISA)] Paul V. McNutt Papers (ISA), folder 32, box 3. 124 Inaugural Address of Governor Paul V. McNutt of Indiana, 9 Jan. 1933, McNutt Papers, box 14. 125 ‘Reviving the “Pork Barrel”’, Philippines Herald, 16 Sept. 1937, 4. 126 To be sure, McNutt, following his arrival in Manila, had chided Quezon's strong-handed rule, lamenting that ‘democracy in the Philippines’ seemed to be a matter of ‘form’ and not ‘substance’. ‘As American Editors See Us’, Manila Bulletin, 13 Aug. 1937, Hayden Papers, folder 23, box 9. 127 Forbes Journal, ‘Flying Trip to Manila 1946’, Forbes Journals, Volume 5: 1935–1946, 480. 128 Wood Diary, 17 July 1923, Wood Papers, reel 2 (diaries). 129 ‘McNutt Sounds Promise to Give P. I. Square Deal’, Manila Bulletin, 5 April 1937, 1. 130 Harrison, Origins of the Philippine Republic, 135. 131 ‘“No Axe to Grind” in Manila Post, Says New Commissioner’, Manila Bulletin, 19 Feb. 1937 and ‘Toughest Job of His Career Faces McNutt’, Manila Bulletin, 20 Feb. 1937, Hayden Papers, folder 21, box 9. 132 Address by Paul V. McNutt at the Ohio Society of New York, New York City, 8 March, McNutt Papers, box 16. 133 ‘Rock of Refuge’, Commonwealth Advocate, March 1938, 39. 134 ‘Won't Scuttle P.I.—McNutt’, Manila Bulletin, 1 April 1937, 1. 135 Narrative of McNutt's first stint as High Commissioner, no date, folder: Articles for Administrator (personal), box 1, Information Files, Records of the Administrator of the Federal Security Agency, RG 235, NACP. 136 H. E. Yarnell to McNutt, 1 April 1937, McNutt Papers, box 9 (all quotations); Golay, Face of Empire, 363–4. 137 ‘Hoover Carries 810 American and Filipino Refugees’, Philippines Herald, 23 Aug. 1937, 1. 138 ‘Japan Apology Eases Tensions Felt in America’, Philippines Herald, 15 Dec. 1937, 1. 139 McNutt to Yarnell, 24 Dec. 1938, McNutt Papers, box 10. 140 McNutt to Howard, 11 Dec. 1937, Howard Papers, folder: 1937 Philippines, box 133 (all quotations). 141 ‘The Gallup Poll’, Philippines Free Press, 26 Mar. 1938, 44. 142 ‘McNutt Coming “With Spirit of High Adventure”’, Manila Bulletin, 15 March 1937, 1. 143 ‘As American Editors See Us’, Manila Bulletin, 19 May 1938, 12 (quotation); ‘As American Editors See Us’, Manila Bulletin, 2 June 1938, 12. 144 ‘Retreating for Peace’, Manila Bulletin, 21 June 1937, 14. 145 ‘As American Editors See Us’, Manila Bulletin, 9 March 1938, 12. 146 ‘Congress Leaders for Transition Cut But Voice Warning’, Manila Bulletin, 22 March 1937, 1. 147 Quoted in Robert W. Bingham Diary, 5 Oct. 1933, LC, Robert W. Bingham Papers, box 1. 148 FDR to McNutt, 1 March 1937, folder: Instructions for High Commissioner, box 6, Records of the Manila Office of the U.S. High Commissioner 1935–1946, RG 126, NACP. 149 McNutt to Howard, 11 Dec. 1937, Howard Papers, folder: 1937 Philippines, box 133. 150 McNutt to James Roosevelt, 12 Jan. 1938, [Hyde Park, New York, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library (FDRL)], James Roosevelt Papers, folder: McNutt, Paul V., box 45. 151 FDR quoted in McNutt to Yarnell, 24 Dec. 1938, McNutt Papers, box 10. 152 Yarnell to McNutt, 1 April 1937, McNutt Papers, box 9. 153 Howard to G. B. Parker, 23 Nov. 1935, Howard Papers, Bloomington, Indiana University, School of Journalism, Roy W. Howard Archive folder: Letters & Articles 1935 October through December. 154 ‘Araneta Speaks on Radio Against “Untimely Independence” for Philippines’, Manila Bulletin, 7 Oct. 1939, Salvador Araneta Papers [Bentley Historical Library], reel 1. 155 National Broadcasting Company press release, ‘Philippine-American Relations’, a speech by Paul V. McNutt, 14 March 1938, Howard Papers, folder: 1938 Philippine Islands, box 146. 156 ‘Mapa Warns Against Overlooking Economics in Accepting 1938 Independence’, Manila Bulletin, 25 March 1937, 3. 157 ‘40-Year Extension of Transition Period Urged by Mapa in Speech’, Manila Bulletin, 26 Mar. 1938, 7. 158 ‘Filipinos Compatriots!’ Commonwealth Advocate, March 1938, 48. 159 ‘A Radical Change of Attitude’, Commonwealth Advocate, March 1938, 5–6. 160 McNutt to Maple T. Harl, 27 May 1937, McNutt Papers, box 9. 161 ‘How Provinces Vote’, Philippines Free Press, 25 September 1937, 41. 162 Harrison, Origins of the Philippine Republic, 135. 163 Cullather, Illusions of Influence, 24–5 (all quotations). 164 Brands, Bound to Empire, 172 (quotations). 165 D.J. Kotlowski, ‘Breaching the Paper Walls: Paul V. McNutt and Jewish Refugees to the Philippines, 1938–1939’, Diplomatic History, xxxiii, No. 5 (2009), 883, 889–90. 166 Golay, Face of Empire, 394. 167 ‘Neutral Pact Futile—Quezon’, Manila Bulletin, 5 April 1937, 1. 168 J. E. Jacobs to Sayre, 27 January 1937, file# 811B.001, box 5292, Decimal File 1930–1939, RG 59, NACP (quotation). See also Memorandum of conversation between Quezon, Sayre, and Jacobs, 3 March 1937 and Memorandum of conversation between Quezon, Hornbeck, Hawes, and Jacobs, 3 March 1937—both in file# 811B.001/84, box 5292, Decimal File 1930–1939, RG 59, NACP. 169 Report of the Acting High Commissioner for January 1937, 10 Feb. 1937, file# 811B.00/2, box 5291, Decimal File 1930–1939, RG 59, NACP. 170 Brands, Bound to Empire, 175; Karnow, In Our Image, 270–7. 171 ‘Once Japan dominates China’, Quezon told a friend, ‘she can stand against the whole world’. Brands, Bound to Empire, 179. 172 Joseph C. Grew to Hull, 2 February 1937, file# 811B.001, box 5292, Decimal File 1930–1939, RG 59, NACP 173 Joseph C. Grew Diary, 7 Aug. 1937, [Cambridge, MA, Houghton Library, Harvard University] Joseph C. Grew Papers, Vol. 85. 174 Memorandum of conversation between Quezon, Sayre, and Jacobs, 3 March 1937, file# 811B.001/84, box 5292, Decimal File 1930–1939, RG 59, NACP. 175 Quezon quoted in Howard to Richard C. Wilson, 20 July 1937, Howard Papers, folder: 1937 Philippines, box 133. 176 McNutt (relaying Quezon's thoughts) to Howard, 11 Dec. 1937, Howard Papers folder: 1937 Philippines, box 133. 177 Quezon to Sterling Fisher, 12 March 1937, Quezon Papers, reel 1 (series I, general correspondence). 178 Quezon complained about the US Congress adding ever more restrictions on Philippine goods entering the United States and, predictably, about the presence of the High Commissioner. See Memorandum of conversation between Quezon, Sayre, and Jacobs, 3 March 1937 and memorandum of conversation between Quezon, Hornbeck, Hawes, and Jacobs, 3 March 1937, file# 811B.001/84, box 5292, Decimal File 1930–1939, RG 59, NACP. 179 Quezon relayed these thoughts to William C. Bullitt, the US Ambassador to France, while the Philippine president was visiting France. William C. Bullitt to Hull, 5 May 1937, file# 811.001/114, box 5292, Decimal File 1930–1939, RG 59, NACP. 180 Howard to Parker, 23 Nov. 1935, Howard Papers (IU), folder: Letters & Articles 1935, October thru December. 181 Gleeck, American Half-Century, 386. For an accou
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