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Al Qaeda's Foot Soldiers: A Study of the Biographies of Foreign Fighters Killed in Afghanistan and Pakistan Between 2002 and 2006

2011; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 34; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/1057610x.2011.545934

1521-0731

Anne Stenersen,

Military History and Strategy

Abstract This article sheds light on the identity and activities of foreign fighters who were active in Afghanistan and Pakistan between 2002 and 2006. This is done through analyzing a series of "martyr biographies"—short biographical stories of killed militants—issued by the Al Qaeda network in 2008. The study argues that there was little migration of foreign fighters from abroad to Afghanistan and Pakistan in this period, and practically no influx of fighters from Iraq. Al Qaeda's activities in the region were upheld by fighters who managed to flee from Afghanistan during and after the U.S.-led invasion in late 2001. After re-settling in the tribal areas of Pakistan, the main concern for these fighters was to fight a guerrilla war against U.S. and NATO troops in Afghanistan, not to plot terrorist attacks in Western countries. The study demonstrates that over time, the foreign fighters became more integrated in local communities. These early developments may help to explain why Al Qaeda continues to enjoy a strong sanctuary in the tribal areas of Pakistan today. Acknowledgments The author thanks Thomas Hegghammer and the two anonymous reviewers for their useful comments to early drafts of this article. Notes 1. A general definition of foreign fighters is "non-indigenous, non-territorialized combatants who, motivated by religion, kinship, and/or ideology rather than pecuniary reward, enter a conflict zone to participate in hostilities." Cerwyn Moore and Paul Tumelty, "Foreign Fighters and the Case of Chechnya: A Critical Assessment," Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 31(5) (2008), pp. 412–433. 2. See, for example, Peter L. Bergen, The Osama bin Laden I Know (New York: Free Press, 2006), p. 263. 3. Around 2002, there was a meeting between Abu al-Layth and two Al Qaeda representatives (Shaykh Abu al-Hasan al-Masri al-Sa'idi and Shaykh Abu Jihad al-Masri) in which he agreed to cooperate with Al Qaeda in Afghanistan, while still identifying himself with the Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG). The relationship between Al Qaeda and LIFG was formalized in November 2007, when Ayman al-Zawahiri announced in an as-Sahab production that the LIFG, represented in the tape by Abu al-Layth al-Libi, had joined Al Qaeda. "rih al-janna, al-juz 3" [The Scent of Paradise, part 3], al-Sahab 1430h (2009); "wahdat al-saff" [Unity of Rank], al-Sahab Shawal 1428h (October–November 2007). 4. A partial English summary and analysis of this biography collection was posted on the blog Making Sense of Jihad in 2008–2009. The blog postings cover pp. 1–244 of the 350-page document. Marisa Urgo, "A Study of Martyrs in a Time of Alienation," Making Sense of Jihad, last updated on 15 October 2009. Available at www.makingsenseofjihad.com/a_study_of_martyrs_in_a_time_of_alienation/ (accessed 25 May 2010). Reference to the original source: Abu 'Ubayda al-Maqdisi, "shuhada' fi zaman al-ghurba" [Martyrs in a Time of Alienation], Word version (350 pages), issued by al-Fajr Media Center and downloaded on 2 February 2008 from al-Ikhlas. http://www.alekhlaas.net/forum/showthread.php?t=120223 (the link no longer works but the document has been stored by the author). 5. For a background on al-Fajr Media Center, see Hanna Rogan, Al-Qaeda's Online Media Strategies: From Abu Reuter to Irhabi 007 (Kjeller: FFI, 2007), pp. 65–67. 6. For other studies using martyr biographies as a source, see, for example: Mariam Abou Zahab, "'I Shall be Waiting for You at the Door of Paradise': The Pakistani Martyrs of the Lashkar-e Taiba (Army of the Pure)," in Aparna Rao, Michael Bollig and Monika Böck, eds., The Practice of War: Production, Reproduction and Communication of Armed Violence (Oxford: Berghahn, 2007); Thomas Hegghammer, Saudi Militants in Iraq—Backgrounds and Recruitment Patterns (Kjeller: FFI, 2006); Thomas Hegghammer, "Terrorist Recruitment and Radicalisation in Saudi Arabia," Middle East Policy 13(4) (2006). 7. al-Maqdisi, "Martyrs in a Time of Alienation," p. 13. 8. Rohan Gunaratna and Anders Nielsen, "Al Qaeda in the Tribal Areas of Pakistan and Beyond," Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 31(9) (2008), pp. 782–783. 9. In the period 2004–2007 only nine such attacks took place. Peter Bergen and Katherine Tiedemann, "The Year of the Drone: An Analysis of U.S. Drone Strikes in Pakistan, 2004–2010," New America Foundation, 24 February 2010. Available at http://counterterrorism.newamerica.net/sites/newamerica.net/files/policydocs/bergentiedemann2.pdf (accessed 23 May 2010). 10. There are numerous books on the Soviet–Afghan war and the role of foreign fighters in this period. See, for example, Steve Coll, Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan and bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001 (London: Penguin Books, 2005); Muhammad Amir Rana and Mubasher Bukhari, Arabs in Afghan Jihad (Lahore: Nigarshat Publishers, 2007). 11. On the "Afghan-Arabs" phenomenon, see "Arab Veterans of Afghanistan War Lead New Islamic Holy War" (FAS, 1994). Available at www.fas.org/irp/news/1994/afghan_war_vetrans.html (accessed 9 June 2010). 12. Thomas Hegghammer, "Al-Qaidas Rekruttskoler: Hva Gjorde Afghanistan-Veteranene så Farlige?" [Al-Qaida's Boot Camps: What Made the Afghanistan Veterans so Dangerous?], Norsk Militært Tidsskrift no. 2 (2008). 13. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, The 9/11 Commission Report (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004), p. 67. 14. See, for example, ibid. 15. The "Arab" groups identified by al-Suri were (1) Al Qaeda; (2) The Libyan Islamic Fighting Group; (3) The Islamic fighting group in Morocco; (4) Egyptian Islamic Jihad; (5) The Egyptian Islamic Group; (6) The Algerian jihadi formation; (7) The Tunisian jihadi formation; (8) The formation of mujahidin from Jordan and Palestine (led by Abu Mus'ab al-Zarqawi); (9) The Khalden camp (a general training camp for Arabs run by Ibn Sheikh al-Libi and Abu Zubaydah); (10) The Abu Khabab al-Masri training camp (a specialized training camp for explosives and poisons); (11) the al-Ghuraba camp (led by al-Suri himself). Brynjar Lia, Architect of Global Jihad (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), pp. 249–250. 16. Vahid Mojdeh, "Afghanistan under Five Years of Taliban Sovereignty," unpublished translation to English by Sepideh Khalili and Saeed Ganji, p. 36. 17. Abu Mus'ab al-Suri, The Global Islamic Resistance Call [in Arabic] (Place and publisher unknown), pp. 787–788. 18. See, for example, "Cracks in the Foundation: Leadership Schisms in al-Qa'ida 1989–2006," Combating Terrorism Center at West Point (September 2007); on the conflict between al-Suri and bin Laden, see Lia, Architect of Global Jihad, pp. 278–293. 19. For an analysis of this battle, see Paul L. Hastert, "Operation Anaconda: Perception Meets Reality in the Hills of Afghanistan," Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 28(1) (January 2005), pp. 11–20. 20. In this period, the war in Afghanistan started to feature more prominently in Al Qaeda's audiovisual propaganda. In 2005, Al Qaeda's media wing as-Sahab started issuing battle footage from Afghanistan in the series "mahrakat al-amrikan fi bilad khurasan" [Holocaust for the Americans in the Land of Khurasan]. The production peaked in 2006 with 38 films. The output was somewhat lower in the years 2007–2009. Based on FFI's Jihadist Video Database and author's own archive. 21. Don Rassler, "Securing Sanctuary: Understanding Al-Qaeda's Strategy in Pakistan," in "Al-Qaeda's Senior Leadership (AQSL)," Jane's Strategic Advisory Services (November 2009), pp. 31–32. 22. Muhammad Amir Rana, "Marriott Blast: How to Single out Culprit Group from a Pool of Terrorists?" SouthAsiaNet, 24 September 2008, Available at http://san-pips.com (accessed 25 September 2008); Bill Roggio and Kaushik Kapisthalam, "Banned Pakistani Terror Group Re-Emerges under New Name," The Long War Journal, 15 January 2009. Available at www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2009/01/banned_pakistani_ter.php (accessed 24 May 2010). 23. Anne Stenersen, "The Taliban Insurgency in Afghanistan: Organization, Leadership and Worldview," FFI-Report 2010/00359. Available at www.mil.no/multimedia/archive/00136/00359_136353a.pdf (accessed 24 May 2010), p. 18. 24. Some recent articles include: Jeremy Binnie and Joanna Wright, "Conflict of Interest: The Taliban's Relationship with al-Qaeda," Jane's Intelligence Review 22(1) (January 2010); Barbara Sude, "Al-Qaeda Central: An Assessment of the Threat Posed by the Terrorist Group Headquartered on the Afghanistan-Pakistan Border," Counterterrorism Strategy Initiative Policy Paper, New America Foundation (December 2009); Don Rassler, "Securing Sanctuary: Understanding Al-Qaeda's Strategy in Pakistan," in "Al-Qaeda's Senior Leadership (AQSL)," Jane's Strategic Advisory Services (November 2009); Peter Bergen, "The Front: The Taliban-Al Qaeda Merger," The New Republic 19 October 2009. Available at www.tnr.com (accessed 12 February 2010); Sami Yousafzai and Ron Moreau, "The Taliban in Their Own Words," Newsweek, 26 September 2009. 25. Osama bin Laden first pledged a formal oath of allegiance to Mullah Omar in 1998, although some observers have pointed out that he did so reluctantly. After 2001, other high-ranking Al Qaeda leaders have confirmed their pledge to the Taliban leader. For example, Mustafa Abu al-Yazid confirmed his pledge to Mullah Omar in a videotaped speech in 2007. Vahid Brown, "The Facade of Allegiance: Bin Ladin's Dubious Pledge to Mullah Omar," CTC Sentinel 3(1) (January 2010); "liqa' al-ikhwa" [A meeting between brothers], al-Sahab, Ramadan 1428 h. (September–October 2007). 26. Binnie and Wright, "Conflict of Interest"; Anthony Loyd, "Nato has Only Seven Months to take Kandahar from the Taleban," Times Online, 11 May 2010. Available at http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/afghanistan/article7122307.ece (accessed 24 May 2010). 27. The statistics of al-Sahab videos are based on FFI's Jihadist Video Database, located at the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment (FFI) in Kjeller, Norway, and author's own archive. 28. On hostility toward Al Qaeda among the Taliban: See, for example, Yousafzai and Moreau, "The Taliban in Their Own Words." 29. In an interview aired on Al-Jazeera in June 2009, Mustafa Abu al-Yazid took credit for only one specific operation inside Afghanistan in recent years: A suicide attack against an American base in Khost, carried out in 2008. He emphasized that Al Qaeda's fighters in Afghanistan work under the Taliban's command. Ahmad Zaidan, "liqa' al-yawm: mustafa abu al-yazid … tanzim al-qa'ida" [Today's meeting: Mustafa Abu al-Yazid … the al-Qaida organization], Al-Jazeera, 21 June 2009. Available at www.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/C8A7D29B-9DFA-414E-8A09-EB30948E2621.htm (accessed 24 May 2010). 30. Author's conversation with Truls H. Tønnessen, Norwegian Defence Research Est. (FFI), April 2010. 31. Stephen Tankel, "Laskar-e-Taiba in Perspective: An Evolving Threat," New America Foundation, February 2010. Available at www.newamerica.net/sites/newamerica.net/files/policydocs/tankel.pdf (accessed 25 May 2010); Rohan Gunaratna and Anders Nielsen, "Al Qaeda in the Tribal Areas of Pakistan and Beyond," Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 31(9) (2008), pp. 782, 793. 32. Mustafa Abu al-Yazid, "ta'ziya wa tahni'at al-umma al-islamiyya fi istishad al-amir baytallah mas'ud" [Condolences and Congratulations to the Islamic Ummah for the Martyrdom of Emir Baitullah Mehsud], al-Sahab 1430 h. 33. Abu 'Ubayda al-Maqdisi, "shuhada' fi zaman al-ghurba," in Decoding the New Taliban: Insights from the Afghan Field, ed. Antonio Giustozzi (London: Hurst, 2009), pp. 324–326. 34. Giustozzi, Decoding the Taliban, pp. 76–77. 35. M. Ilyas Khan, "Profile of Nek Mohammad," Dawn, 19 June 2004. Available at http://www.dawn.com/2004/06/19/latest.htm (accessed 11 March 2010). 36. Yousafzai and Moreau, "The Taliban in Their Own Words." 37. The personalities investigated were: Nek Muhammed, Maulavi Nazir, Abdullah Mehsud, and Baitullah Mehsud. Abu 'Ubayda al-Maqdisi, "shuhada' fi zaman al-ghurba," 324–326; Yousafzai and Moreau, "The Taliban in Their Own Words"; "As-Sahab's Meeting with Mulla Nazir Ahmad, Emir of Taliban Mujahadeen, South Waziristan (Wazir tribe)," English transcript of video interview, al-Sahab (2009); al-Yazid, "ta'ziya wa tahni'at al-umma al-islamiyya"; Sohail Abdul Nasir, "Baitullah Mehsud: South Waziristan's Unofficial Amir," Terrorism Focus 3(26) (9 July 2006); "Kabul… Guantanamo… Waziristan… Steps on the Way of Jihad for the Martyr Abdullah Mehsud," Ma'arik Islamic Network, 21 March 2009. Available at http://m3-f.com/forum/showthread.php?t=14234 (accessed 4 February 2010). 38. Don Rassler, "Securing Sanctuary: Understanding Al-Qaeda's Strategy in Pakistan," in "Al-Qaeda's Senior Leadership (AQSL)," Jane's Strategic Advisory Services (November 2009), p. 32. 39. "As-Sahab's meeting with Mulla Nazir Ahmad, Emir of Taliban Mujahadeen, South Waziristan (Wazir tribe)." 40. Mustafa Abu al-Yazid, "bayan 'an (ghazwat abi dujana al-khurasani taqabbalahu allah) li-ikhtiraq husun al-amrikan" [Statement Regarding the Attack of Abu Dujana al-Khurasani, May God Accept Him, to Penetrate the Fortresses of the Americans], al-Faluja, 2 January 2010. Available at http://al-faloja1.com/vb/showthread.php?t=98772 (accessed 7 January 2010). 41. "liqa' ma'a al-batal abu dujana al-khurasani" [Interview with the Hero Abu Dujana al-Khurasani], al-Sahab 1431 h./2010. Available at http://69.162.81.124/~majahden/vb/showthread.php?t=40103 (accessed 1 March 2010). 42. "The Last Will of Abu Dujana al-Khurasani," Umar Studio, downloaded via Shabakat Ansar al-Mujahidin, 3 March 2010. Available at http://202.71.111.73/~asansar/vb/showthread.php?t=16122 (accessed 4 March 2010). 43. Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, "al-taqrir al-ikhbari 'an yawm ams al-arba'a' al-muwafiq 30/12/2009" [News Report from Yesterday, Wednesday, Corresponding to 30/12/2009], al-Faluja, 31 December 2009. Available at http://202.71.102.68/~alfaloj/vb/showthread.php?t=97952 (accessed 4 March 2010). 44. "Al-liqa' al-khass ma'a al-qa'id siraj al-din haqqani" [Exclusive Interview with Commander Sirajuddin Haqqani]," al-Faluja, 13 April 2010. Available at http://124.217.253.94/~faaall3s/vb/showthread.php?t=111543 (accessed 13 April 2010). 45. "Answer from the Webpage of the Emirate Regarding the Operation of the Martyr Hero: Abu Dujana al-Khurasani 'to Clear the Confusion' #Corrected#" [in Arabic], al-Faluja, 13 May 2010. Available at http://alfaloja.net/vb/showthread.php?p=837348 (accessed 8 June 2010). 46. It should be noted that the martyr biography collection does not include biographies of fighters who were killed in the military campaign against the Taliban regime from October–December 2001. However, it contains several biographies of fighters who were killed during the Battle of Shah-i-Kot in March 2002. 47. al-Maqdisi, "Martyrs in a Time of Alienation," pp. 151–152. 48. Truls Hallberg Tønnessen, "Training on a Battlefield: Iraq as a Training Ground for Global Jihadis," Terrorism and Political Violence 20(4) (October 2008), pp. 543–562. 49. The training facility is often described as a ma'qal al-tadrib (fortress, refuge for training), rather than as a mu'askar al-tadrib (training camp), which was commonly used to describe pre-9/11 training camps in Afghanistan. 50. al-Maqdisi, "Martyrs in a Time of Alienation," p. 113. 51. Sami Yousafzai, Ron Moreau, And Mark Hosenball, "The Regathering Storm," Newsweek, 25 December 2006. Available at www.newsweek.com/id/44269/page/2 (accessed 25 May 2010); Sami Yousafzai and Ron Moreau, "The Taliban in Their Own Words," Newsweek, 26 September 2009. Available at www.newsweek.com/id/216235 (accessed 25 May 2010). 52. See, for example, Brian Glyn Williams, "Return of the Arabs: Al-Qa'ida's Current Military Role in the Afghan Insurgency," CTC Sentinel 1(3) (February 2008), pp. 22–25; Michael Scheuer, "Al-Qaeda's New Leader in Afghanistan: A Profile of Abu al-Yazid," Terrorism Focus 4(21) (July 2007). 53. Both sources contain inaccuracies. The biographies often contain detailed information about the perpetrator of an attack, but seldom provide accurate dates and place names. Journalistic sources may provide the accurate date of an event but seldom provide details on the perpetrator. 54. Al-Suri, Global Islamic Resistance Call, p. 764. 55. The interview with Abu al-Layth al-Libi was recorded and published as an audio file on jehad.net, one of Al Qaeda's main media outlets at the time. Abu al-Layth al-Libi, in "liqa' ba'd suqut Taliban" [Interview after the fall of the Taliban], audio file, downloaded via al-Ikhlas. Available at www.alekhlaas.net/forum/showthread.php?t=120370 (accessed 2 February 2008). An English translation can also be found at Mario's Cyberspace Station. Available at http://mprofaca.cro.net/abu-laith.html (accessed 11 March 2010). See also "Al-Qa'idah Commander Warns of New Operations in Afghanistan," BBC Monitoring, 28 July 2002. Available at http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/724333/posts (accessed 11 March 2009). 56. The German scholar Guido Steinberg has asserted that Abu al-Layth cooperated closely with the IJU in Waziristan and that it is "highly likely" that he played a role in the so-called Sauerland plot, revealed in Germany in 2007. Guido Steinberg, "A Turkish al-Qaida: The Islamic Jihad Union and the Internationalization of Uzbek Jihadism," Strategic Insights (July 2008), Center for Contemporary Conflict, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey California. Available at www.swp-berlin.org/common/get_document.php?asset_id=5147 (accessed 25 May 2010). 57. al-Maqdisi, "Martyrs in a Time of Alienation," p. 14. 58. James Astill, "Afghan Suicide Bomber Kills Two in Kabul," The Guardian, 28 January 2004. Available at http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2004/jan/28/afghanistan.jamesastill (accessed 11 March 2009). 59. al-Maqdisi, "Martyrs in a Time of Alienation," p. 131. 60. Ibid., pp. 248–249. 61. See Stephen Ulph, "The Attempt on Afghan Warlord Dostum," Terrorism Focus 2(3) (May 2005); Brian Glyn Williams, "Target Dostum: The Campaign against Northern Alliance Warlords," Terrorism Monitor 3(20) (2005). 62. See, for example, Petter Nesser, "Chronology of Jihadism in Western Europe 1994–2007: Planned, Prepared, and Executed Terrorist Attacks," Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 31(10) (2008), pp. 924–946. 63. Ibid., p. 79. 64. Ibid., pp. 95–99. 65. "Al Qaeda-Trained Terrorist Jailed," Metropolitan Police Homepage, 9 January 2008. Available at http://cms.met.police.uk/news/convictions/al_qaeda_trained_terrorist_jailed (accessed 12 March 2009); "London Man Jailed for Preparing for Terrorism," The Guardian, 8 January 2008. Available at http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2008/jan/08/terrorism.world (accessed 12 March 2009). 66. Yassin Musharbash, "The Memoirs of a German Jihadist," Der Spiegel, 5 May 2010. Available at www.spiegel.de/international/germany/0,1518,693216,00.html (accessed 25 May 2010). 67. For an explanation of the term "classical jihadism" (as opposed to "global jihadism"), see Thomas Hegghammer, "Jihadi-Salafis or Revolutionaries? On Religion and Politics in the Study of Militant Islamism," in Roel Meijer, ed., Global Salafism: Islam's New Religious Movement (London: Hurst, 2009). 68. Yousafzai and Moreau, "The Taliban in Their Own Words." 69. Al-Maqdisi, "Martyrs in a Time of Alienation," pp. 67–68. 70. The biographies mention seven Saudis, two Syrians, one Yemenite, one Egyptian, and one Tunisian as being among those who went to Jalalabad after 2001. 71. al-Maqdisi, "Martyrs in a Time of Alienation," p. 337. 72. Ibid., p. 34. 73. "Seventeen Suspected Taliban Killed in Southern Afghanistan," Afghanistan News Center, 5 June 2004. Available at http://www.afghanistannewscenter.com/news/2004/june/jun42004.html (accessed 11 March 2009). 74. al-Maqdisi, "Martyrs in a Time of Alienation," p. 88. 75. Ibid., 337. 76. "Book Bomb Addressed to Afghan Police Official Kills One, Wounds at Least Four, Officials Say," Associated Press, 3 June 2004. Available at http://www.afghanistannewscenter.com/news/2004/june/jun42004.html (accessed 11 March 2009; "Parcel Bomb Injures 7 Policemen in Eastern Afghanistan," Dawn, 3 June 2008. Available at http://www.dawn.com/2004/06/03/welcome.htm (accessed 11 March 2009). 77. al-Maqdisi, "Martyrs in a Time of Alienation," p. 134. 78. Gunaratna and Nielsen, "Al Qaeda in the Tribal Areas of Pakistan and Beyond," p. 779. 79. Paul Danahar, "Afghanistan Five Years after 9/11," BBC, 11 September 2006. Available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/5335060.stm (accessed 24 February 2010).