Formation of STAT1-STAT2 Heterodimers and Their Role in the Activation of IRF-1 Gene Transcription by Interferon-α
1996; Elsevier BV; Volume: 271; Issue: 10 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1074/jbc.271.10.5790
ISSN1083-351X
AutoresXiaoxia Li, Stewart Leung, Sajjad A. Qureshi, James Darnell, George R. Stark,
Tópico(s)Bioactive Compounds and Antitumor Agents
ResumoAn upstream inverted repeat (IR) element mediates transcriptional activation of the interferon response factor-1 gene (IRF-1) by interferon (IFN)-α and IFN-γ. IFN-α and IFN-γ fail to induce IRF-1 in cells that lack signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1), and STAT1 homodimers bind to IR elements in extracts of IFN-α-treated cells. We now report that STAT2 also plays an important role in the IFN-α-mediated transcriptional activation of the IRF-1 gene. A new factor, most likely a STAT1-STAT2 heterodimer, was detected with an IR probe in extracts of IFN-α-treated cells. STAT1 and STAT2 are already known to combine with p48, a DNA-binding protein, to form IFN-stimulated gene factor 3 (ISGF3), which binds to IFN-stimulated response elements (ISREs) distinct from the IR of the IRF-1 gene. In extracts of U2A cells, which lack p48, STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers were still formed, indicating that they do not contain p48. We manipulated the intracellular levels of STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers and STAT1 homodimers to examine their roles in the induction of IRF-1 by IFN-α. Although both dimers can induce IRF-1 transcription, the heterodimers are more potent and thus may be the major activators in vivo. Deletion analysis reveals that the C-terminal domain of STAT2 is important for transcriptional activation mediated by both STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers and ISGF3. An upstream inverted repeat (IR) element mediates transcriptional activation of the interferon response factor-1 gene (IRF-1) by interferon (IFN)-α and IFN-γ. IFN-α and IFN-γ fail to induce IRF-1 in cells that lack signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1), and STAT1 homodimers bind to IR elements in extracts of IFN-α-treated cells. We now report that STAT2 also plays an important role in the IFN-α-mediated transcriptional activation of the IRF-1 gene. A new factor, most likely a STAT1-STAT2 heterodimer, was detected with an IR probe in extracts of IFN-α-treated cells. STAT1 and STAT2 are already known to combine with p48, a DNA-binding protein, to form IFN-stimulated gene factor 3 (ISGF3), which binds to IFN-stimulated response elements (ISREs) distinct from the IR of the IRF-1 gene. In extracts of U2A cells, which lack p48, STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers were still formed, indicating that they do not contain p48. We manipulated the intracellular levels of STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers and STAT1 homodimers to examine their roles in the induction of IRF-1 by IFN-α. Although both dimers can induce IRF-1 transcription, the heterodimers are more potent and thus may be the major activators in vivo. Deletion analysis reveals that the C-terminal domain of STAT2 is important for transcriptional activation mediated by both STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers and ISGF3. INTRODUCTIONMany cytokine and growth factor signaling pathways utilize proteins of the JAK ( 1Abbreviations used are: JAKJanus family kinases, including TYK2 and JAK1EMSAelectrophoretic mobility shift assayFcγhigh affinity immunoglobulin G chain receptor geneGAFγ-activated factorGASγ-activated sequenceIFNinterferonIRinverted repeatIRF-1interferon response factor-1ISGF3interferon-stimulated gene factor 3ISREinterferon-stimulated response elementp4848-kDa DNA binding component of ISGF3SH2Src-homology domain 2STATsignal transducer and activator of transcriptionWAF-1wild-type p53-activated factor 1.) and STAT families (1.Schindler C. Darnell Jr., J.E. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 1995; 64: 621-651Crossref PubMed Scopus (1640) Google Scholar, 2.Darnell Jr., J.E. Kerr I.M. Stark G.R. Science. 1994; 264: 1415-1421Crossref PubMed Scopus (4950) Google Scholar, 3.Ihle J.N. Kerr I.M. Trends Genet. 1995; 11: 69-74Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (818) Google Scholar). The IFN-α pathway involves activation of TYK2, JAK1, STAT1, and STAT2. The two STAT proteins are phosphorylated on conserved tyrosine residues by the JAK family kinases when IFN-α binds to the receptor complex(3.Ihle J.N. Kerr I.M. Trends Genet. 1995; 11: 69-74Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (818) Google Scholar). Activated STAT1 and STAT2 associate with the DNA-binding protein p48 to form the transcription factor ISGF3, which recognizes an interferon-stimulated response element (ISRE, consensus: AGTTTCNNTTTCN(C/T)) (2.Darnell Jr., J.E. Kerr I.M. Stark G.R. Science. 1994; 264: 1415-1421Crossref PubMed Scopus (4950) Google Scholar) present in many promoters activated by IFN-α (for examples, see (4.Porter A.C.G. Chernajovsky Y. Dale T.C. Gilbert C.S. Stark G.R. Kerr I.M. EMBO J. 1988; 7: 85-92Crossref PubMed Scopus (179) Google Scholar, 5.Reid L.E. Brasnett A.H. Gilbert C.S. Porter A.C.G. Gewert D.R. Stark G.R. Kerr I.M. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1989; 86: 840-844Crossref PubMed Scopus (196) Google Scholar, 6.Kessler D.S. Levy D.E. Darnell Jr., J.E. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1988; 85: 8521-8525Crossref PubMed Scopus (169) Google Scholar)). All three proteins of ISGF3 make contact with DNA(7.Qureshi S.A. Salditt-Georgieff M. Darnell Jr., J.E. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1995; 92: 3829-3833Crossref PubMed Scopus (197) Google Scholar).IFN-γ triggers the tyrosine phosphorylation of STAT1, but not STAT2 (8.Shuai K. Schindler C. Prezioso V.R. Darnell Jr., J.E. Science. 1992; 258: 1808-1812Crossref PubMed Scopus (653) Google Scholar). Activated STAT1 forms homodimers, known as GAF(9.Shuai K. Horvath C.M. Huang L.H.T. Qureshi S.A. Cowburn D. Darnell Jr., J.E. Cell. 1994; 76: 821-828Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (677) Google Scholar). In IFN-α signaling, a complex containing STAT1, biochemically similar to GAF, has been reported(10.Decker T. Lew D.J. Darnell Jr., J.E. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1991; 11: 5147-5153Crossref PubMed Scopus (110) Google Scholar). The GAS DNA sequences (consensus: TTNCNNNAA) recognized by GAF serve as binding sites for various cytokine- or growth factor-activated STAT proteins, including STAT3 homodimers(11.Akira S. Nishio Y. Inoue M. Wang X.J. Wei S. Matsusaka T. Yoshida K. Sudo T. Naruto M. Kishimoto T. Cell. 1994; 77: 63-71Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (864) Google Scholar, 12.Zhong Z. Wen Z. Darnell Jr., J.E. Science. 1994; 264: 95-98Crossref PubMed Scopus (1692) Google Scholar), STAT1-STAT3 heterodimers(11.Akira S. Nishio Y. Inoue M. Wang X.J. Wei S. Matsusaka T. Yoshida K. Sudo T. Naruto M. Kishimoto T. Cell. 1994; 77: 63-71Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (864) Google Scholar, 12.Zhong Z. Wen Z. Darnell Jr., J.E. Science. 1994; 264: 95-98Crossref PubMed Scopus (1692) Google Scholar), STAT4(13.Zhong Z. Wen Z. Darnell Jr., J.E. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1994; 91: 4806-4810Crossref PubMed Scopus (338) Google Scholar), STAT5(14.Wakao H. Gouilleux F. Groner B. EMBO J. 1994; 13: 2182-2191Crossref PubMed Scopus (712) Google Scholar, 15.Gouilleux F. Wakao H. Mundt M. Groner B. EMBO J. 1994; 13: 4361-4369Crossref PubMed Scopus (524) Google Scholar, 16.Mui A.L.-F. Wakao H. O'Farrell A.-M. Harada N. Miyajima A. EMBO J. 1995; 14: 1166-1175Crossref PubMed Scopus (537) Google Scholar), and STAT6(17.Kotanides H. Reich N.C. Science. 1993; 262: 1265-1267Crossref PubMed Scopus (230) Google Scholar).Transcription of the IRF-1 gene is inducible by both IFN-α and IFN-γ. A 16-kb 5′-flanking region that mediates a response to either IFN-α or -γ does not contain an ISRE, and the induction of IRF-1 by IFN-α is independent of the p48 subunit of ISGF3 (18.Sims S.H. Cha Y. Romine M.F. Gao P.-Q. Gottlieb K. Deisseroth A.B. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1993; 13: 690-702Crossref PubMed Scopus (249) Google Scholar, 19.Haque S.J. Williams B.R.G. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 19523-19529Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 20.Pine R. Canova A. Schindler C. EMBO J. 1994; 13: 158-167Crossref PubMed Scopus (339) Google Scholar). Transcriptional activation of this IRF-1 promoter segment by IFNs requires a palindromic GAS element, the IR element, which lies about 110 bases upstream of the transcription start site. IFN-inducible transcription factors containing STAT1 bind to the IR element in vitro.In this report, we demonstrate the formation of a novel IFN-α-inducible DNA-binding factor consisting of STAT1 and STAT2. Although this factor does not include p48, the level of p48 protein does affect the balance between the novel factor and ISGF3. We propose that transcriptional activation of the IRF-1 gene involves interaction of the IR element with either a STAT1-STAT2 heterodimer or a STAT1 homodimer.MATERIALS AND METHODSCells and IFNs2fTGH and mutant cell lines derived from it have been described elsewhere(21.Pellegrini S. John J. Shearer M. Kerr I.M. Stark G.R. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1989; 9: 4605-4612Crossref PubMed Scopus (315) Google Scholar). Human recombinant IFN-α (5 × 106 IU/ml) was obtained from Hoffmann LaRoche. IFN-γ (8.3 × 106 IU/mg) was from Genentech.RNase Protection AssayTotal RNA was prepared from IFN-treated cells and protection experiments were performed as described by Sambrook et al.(22.Sambrook J. Fritsch E.F. Maniatis T. Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY1989: 7.71-7.78Google Scholar). The probes used protect 175 bases of IRF-1 or 130 bases of and γ-actin mRNAs (23.Leung S. Qureshi S.A. Kerr I.M. Darnell Jr., J.E. Stark G.R. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1995; 15: 1312-1317Crossref PubMed Google Scholar).EMSAThe oligonucleotides used were: IR element, 5′-GTGATTTCCCCGAAATGACG-3′; Fcγ GAS, 5′-GTATTTCCCAGAAAAGGAAC-3′. Briefly, complementary oligonucleotides, end-labeled with polynucleotide kinase (Boeringer Mannheim) and [γ-32P]ATP, were annealed by slow cooling. Approximately 20,000 cpm of probe were used per assay. Cytoplasmic extracts were prepared, and assays were carried out as described previously(24.Kessler D.S. Veals S.A. Fu X.Y. Levy D.E. Genes & Dev. 1990; 4: 1753-1765Crossref PubMed Scopus (252) Google Scholar, 25.Levy D.E. Kessler D.S. Pine R. Darnell Jr., J.E. Genes & Dev. 1989; 3: 1362-1371Crossref PubMed Scopus (362) Google Scholar). Briefly, the binding reaction was carried out in a total volume of 12.5-20 μl in 20 mM Hepes buffer, pH 7.0, 10 mM KCl, 0.1% Nonidet P-40, 0.5 mM dithiothreitol, 0.25 mM phenylmethanesulfonyl fluoride, and 10% glycerol at room temperature for 20 min. For supershift experiments, the extract was incubated with 1 μl of antibody for 15 min at 4°C before adding the probe. The antibodies used were against STAT1(26.Schindler C. Fu X. Improta T. Aebersold R. Darnell Jr., J.E. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1992; 89: 7836-7839Crossref PubMed Scopus (541) Google Scholar), STAT2(27.Fu X. Schindler C. Improta T. Aebersold R. Darnell Jr., J.E. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1992; 89: 7840-7843Crossref PubMed Scopus (447) Google Scholar), STAT3(12.Zhong Z. Wen Z. Darnell Jr., J.E. Science. 1994; 264: 95-98Crossref PubMed Scopus (1692) Google Scholar), p48(28.Veals S.A. Schindler C. Leonard D. Fu X. Aebersold R. Darnell Jr., J.E. Levy D.E. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1992; 12: 3315-3324Crossref PubMed Scopus (342) Google Scholar), and WAF-1 (Transduction Laboratories). Control rabbit preimmune serum was from Sigma.TransfectionsWild-type and C-terminal deletion constructs of STAT2 (29.Qureshi S.A. Leung S. Kerr I.M. Stark G.R. Darnell Jr., J.E. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1996; 16: 288-293Crossref PubMed Scopus (148) Google Scholar) were transfected into U6A cells by the calcium phosphate method(30.Ausubel F.M. Brent R. Kingston R.E. Moore D.D. Seidman J.G. Smith J.A. Struhl K. Current Protocols in Molecular Biology. John Wiley & Sons, New York1987: 9.9.1-9.1.3Google Scholar). STAT2 proteins were analyzed by Western blotting and clones expressing similar levels were used. The N2 chimera was constructed by the polymerase chain reaction SOEing technique(31.Horton R.M. Cai Z.L. Ho S.N. Pease L.R. BioTechniques. 1990; 8: 528-535PubMed Google Scholar), replacing the N-terminal region of STAT1 (amino acids 1-305) with the corresponding region of STAT2 (amino acids 1-315)(27.Fu X. Schindler C. Improta T. Aebersold R. Darnell Jr., J.E. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1992; 89: 7840-7843Crossref PubMed Scopus (447) Google Scholar).RESULTSDetection of a GAS-binding Transcription Factor Containing STAT1 and STAT2Complex formation with various GAS element probes was examined by EMSA using cytoplasmic extracts of 2fTGH cells. At least three IFN-α-inducible DNA-binding factors were detected by using an IR element as probe (Fig. 1A, lane 2). We designate these complexes A, B, and C, from the slowest mobility to the fastest, respectively. The intensity of complex C was at least five times higher than that of complex A, and the intensity of complex B was weakest. Similar results were obtained using an Fcγ GAS probe. ( 2X. Li, S. Leung, and G. R. Stark, unpublished observations.) We used antibodies against STAT1, STAT2, and STAT3 to analyze the components present in these complexes. Complex C, which migrated similarly to the IFN-γ-induced GAF (Fig. 1A, lane 3), was supershifted only by an antibody against STAT1 (Fig. 1B, lane 2). Complex B was supershifted by antibodies against STAT1 or STAT3 (Fig. 1B, lanes 2 and 4). Complex A was supershifted by antibodies against STAT1 or STAT2 (Fig. 1B, lanes 2 and 3). A control antibody against WAF-1 did not supershift any of these complexes (Fig. 1B, lane 5). (The control antibody did generate nonspecific protein-DNA complexes near the top of the gel.) The composition of complexes A, B, and C was analyzed further by comparing 2fTGH and mutant cell extracts. No complex was detected with an extract of U3A cells, which lack STAT12, and complex A was not detected in IFN-α-treated U6A cells, which lack STAT2 (Fig. 1A, lane 5). Complex C was barely detectable in IFN-α-treated U6A cells (Fig. 1A, lane 5), probably due to the weak activation of STAT1 in the absence of STAT2(23.Leung S. Qureshi S.A. Kerr I.M. Darnell Jr., J.E. Stark G.R. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1995; 15: 1312-1317Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Thus, it is likely that complex C contains STAT1 homodimers, complex B contains STAT3-STAT1 heterodimers, and complex A contains STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers. To establish that complex A does not contain p48, we performed an EMSA with an extract of IFN-α-treated U2A cells, which lack p48 (Fig. 1C). Complex A was still detectable in these cells, showing that STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers can bind to DNA in the absence of p48. The bands formed with the U2A extract were less intense than those formed with 2fTGH extracts (Fig. 1B) for an unknown reason, possibly clonal variation.STAT1-STAT2 Heterodimers and STAT1 homodimers Are Both Transcriptional Activators of the IRF-1 GeneThe IR element of the IRF-1 promoter binds IFN-α-inducible factors containing STAT1 and is important for the transcriptional activation of IRF-1 in response to IFNs(18.Sims S.H. Cha Y. Romine M.F. Gao P.-Q. Gottlieb K. Deisseroth A.B. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1993; 13: 690-702Crossref PubMed Scopus (249) Google Scholar, 19.Haque S.J. Williams B.R.G. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 19523-19529Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 20.Pine R. Canova A. Schindler C. EMBO J. 1994; 13: 158-167Crossref PubMed Scopus (339) Google Scholar). Previously, we showed that IFN-α induction of IRF-1 in U6A cells (lacking STAT2) was greatly reduced(23.Leung S. Qureshi S.A. Kerr I.M. Darnell Jr., J.E. Stark G.R. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1995; 15: 1312-1317Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). We have now manipulated the levels of the heterodimers and homodimers, to evaluate their roles in the activation of IRF-1 transcription. To evaluate the heterodimers, we used a U6A clone, transfected with a STAT2 expression construct, that expresses about 10 times more STAT2 protein than 2fTGH cells.2 Parental 2fTGH cells have much less heterodimer than homodimer (Fig. 1A, lane 2). The high level of STAT2 in the transfected U6A clone greatly increases the formation of heterodimers and decreases the formation of homodimers in response to IFN-α (Fig. 2, lane 2). The ratio of heterodimers to homodimers in this clone changes to 5:1 compared to a ratio of about 1:5 in parental 2fTGH cells (Fig. 1A, lane 2), a 25-fold increase. IFN-α-induced IRF-1 expression was restored in this clone (Fig. 3, U6A/STAT2). The results suggest that the STAT1-STAT2 heterodimer can function as a transcriptional activator of the IRF-1 gene.Figure 2:Alteration of the relative amounts of STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers and STAT1 homodimers in U6A cells. The details are the same as in Fig. 1A, except that extracts from transfected U6A cells overexpressing STAT2 or a STAT2-STAT1 chimera (N2; see "Materials and Methods") were used.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT)Figure 3:STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers and STAT1 homodimers both activate transcription of the IRF-1 gene in response to IFN-α. A, total RNAs, prepared from 2fTGH, U3A, U6A, U6A/STAT2, and U6A/N2 cells, were analyzed by RNase protection, using probes for IRF-1 and γ-actin. The cells were untreated or treated with IFN-α for 1 or 4 h. The protected fragments are indicated by arrows. A shorter exposure is also shown for the γ-actin fragment. B, quantitation of the experiment. The intensities of the bands were measured by use of a PhosphoImager (Molecular Dynamics). The signals were normalized to γ-actin.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT)It has been proposed that the STAT1 homodimer also functions as a transcriptional activator of this gene in IFN-α-treated cells(20.Pine R. Canova A. Schindler C. EMBO J. 1994; 13: 158-167Crossref PubMed Scopus (339) Google Scholar). To evaluate the role of the homodimer in the absence of the heterodimer, we expressed in U6A cells a chimeric protein, designated N2, in which the N-terminal 305 amino acids of STAT1 are replaced by the N-terminal 315 amino acids of STAT2. We observed only STAT1 homodimers in IFN-α-treated U6A/N2 extracts (Fig. 2, lane 5). In response to IFN-α, IRF-1 induction was restored in U6A/N2 cells (Fig. 3), suggesting that STAT1 homodimers are also transcriptional activators of the IRF-1 gene. The N2 protein and endogenous STAT1 were both phosphorylated in response to IFN-α in U6A/N2 cells.2 However, we did not detect co-precipitation of N2 with STAT1 in these cells,2 suggesting that N2 dimerizes poorly with STAT1. Furthermore, complex C in U6A/N2 extracts is not likely to contain N2/STAT1 heterodimers or N2/STAT1 heterodimers because an amount of an antibody against N-terminal STAT2 that could supershift all of complex A in 2fTGH cells (Fig. 1B, lane 3) showed only minimal effect on complex C in U6A/N2 cells.2Although both STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers and STAT1 homodimers can activate IRF-1, it is likely that the heterodimer is more potent. Upon IFN-α treatment, the level of homodimers in U6A/N2 cells was about 10-fold higher than the level of heterodimers in U6A/STAT2 cells (Fig. 2; compare complex C in lane 5 to complex A in lane 2). However, induction of IRF-1 gene expression was stronger in U6A/STAT2 cells than in U6A/N2 cells 4 h after IFN-α treatment (Fig. 3, A and B; compare U6A/STAT2 to U6A/N2). Although there are more STAT1 homodimers than STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers in IFN-α-treated 2fTGH cells (Fig. 1A, lane 2), the heterodimers may still contribute to the activation of IRF-1 gene expression, since they are more potent.The Acidic Domain at the C Terminus of STAT2 Is Required for IFN-α-induced IRF-1 TranscriptionThe critical role of STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers in IFN-α-induced IRF-1 expression is supported by studies with a series of C-terminal STAT2 deletion mutants. The STAT2 C terminus contains a domain rich in acidic amino acids, believed to be important to transcriptional activation(27.Fu X. Schindler C. Improta T. Aebersold R. Darnell Jr., J.E. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1992; 89: 7840-7843Crossref PubMed Scopus (447) Google Scholar). Recently, we expressed a series of C-terminal STAT2 deletion mutants in U6A cells and showed that the acidic domain is important for ISGF3-mediated transcriptional activation in response to IFN-α(29.Qureshi S.A. Leung S. Kerr I.M. Stark G.R. Darnell Jr., J.E. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1996; 16: 288-293Crossref PubMed Scopus (148) Google Scholar). A U6A clone expressing full-length STAT2 (851 amino acids) was compared to clones expressing similar levels of STAT2 deletions missing 20 (Δ831 construct), 39 (Δ812 construct), or 51 (Δ800 construct) C-terminal amino acids. In all of these clones, the IFN-α-mediated tyrosine phosphorylation of STAT1 was restored to normal levels (29.Qureshi S.A. Leung S. Kerr I.M. Stark G.R. Darnell Jr., J.E. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1996; 16: 288-293Crossref PubMed Scopus (148) Google Scholar) and heterodimers of STAT1 and the truncated STAT2 proteins (Fig. 4, complex A) and STAT1 homodimers (Fig. 4, complex C) were formed. Interestingly, IRF-1 gene induction could not be restored by STAT2 mutants with deletion of 51 amino acids (Fig. 5, Δ800) or more. At least three factors contribute to this result. First, the STAT1-Δ800-STAT2 heterodimers are likely to be inherently defective in transcriptional activation. Second, the small amounts of STAT1 homodimers formed in these clones will activate IRF-1 transcription only inefficiently. Third, the inactive heterodimers are likely to compete with the homodimers for IR elements. In summary, the segment between amino acids 851 and 800 is important for IRF-1 gene transcription mediated by the STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers and also for the transcriptional activity of STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers bound to p48 (ISGF3)(29.Qureshi S.A. Leung S. Kerr I.M. Stark G.R. Darnell Jr., J.E. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1996; 16: 288-293Crossref PubMed Scopus (148) Google Scholar).Figure 4:STAT2 proteins with C-terminal truncations form heterodimers with STAT1. Extracts were prepared from U6A cells transfected with wild-type STAT2 or STAT2 C-terminal deletion constructs, using clones with similar levels of expression. The end points of the deletions are indicated. The sizes of the STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers (arrows) decreased as the length of the deletions increased.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT)Figure 5:Complementation of IFN-α-induced IRF-1 expression in U6A cells by full-length STAT2 or STAT2 proteins with C-terminal truncations. The amino acid positions at the C-terminal ends of the deletions are indicated. Total RNAs were analyzed by RNase protection, using probes for IRF-1 and γ-actin. The cells were untreated(-) or treated with IFN-α for 4 h (α). The positions of the protected fragments and undigested probes are indicated by arrows. A shorter exposure is also shown for the γ-actin fragment.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT)Inhibition of Complex A Formation by p48Overexpression of p48 should reduce the amount of STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers by promoting ISGF3 formation. In U2A cells (lacking p48), ISGF3 was not formed in response to IFN-α (Fig. 6A, lane 4), but the heterodimer was detected with the IR element probe (Fig. 6B, lane 4). When p48 was overexpressed in U2A cells, the ISGF3 complex was formed (Fig. 6A, lane 2), but the heterodimer (complex A) was not detected, even when twice the amount of extract was used (Fig. 6B, lane 2), suggesting that the level of STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers is affected by the level of p48. Formation of complex C (STAT1 homodimers) was not affected in p48-transfected U2A cells.Figure 6:Alteration of the ratio of ISGF3 to STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers by p48. A, EMSA was performed using extracts of either U2A or p48-complemented U2A cells, untreated(-) or treated with IFN-α for 15 min. An ISRE probe from the 9-27 gene was used (GGAAATAGAAACT)(5.Reid L.E. Brasnett A.H. Gilbert C.S. Porter A.C.G. Gewert D.R. Stark G.R. Kerr I.M. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1989; 86: 840-844Crossref PubMed Scopus (196) Google Scholar). The position of ISGF3 is indicated by arrows. We see two bands, corresponding to the 91- and 84-kDa forms of STAT1. B, the same extracts were assayed with an IR probe (see "Materials and Methods"). To show critically that complex A was not present in the IFN-α-treated U2A/p48 cells, the amount of extract was doubled in that lane. Complexes A and C are indicated by arrows.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT)DISCUSSIONWe performed EMSA with various GAS elements (1.Schindler C. Darnell Jr., J.E. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 1995; 64: 621-651Crossref PubMed Scopus (1640) Google Scholar) and an extract of U6A/STAT2 cells; only the IR and Fcγ GAS elements were found to bind STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers, suggesting that the heterodimers probably prefer GAS elements with the core sequence TTCCC(A/C)GAA. We did not identify a GAS element specific for heterodimers since STAT1 homodimers were detected with the same probes. It will be interesting to determine the optimal GAS sequence for binding heterodimers by use of the polymerase chain reaction(32.Horvath C.M. Wen Z. Darnell Jr., J.E. Genes & Dev. 1995; 9: 984-994Crossref PubMed Scopus (451) Google Scholar). However, the optimal sequence for STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers may be no more specific than the optimal sequence for STAT1-STAT3 heterodimers, which also binds to STAT1 homodimers with high affinity(32.Horvath C.M. Wen Z. Darnell Jr., J.E. Genes & Dev. 1995; 9: 984-994Crossref PubMed Scopus (451) Google Scholar).STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers form in U2A cells in the absence of p48. It is likely that p48 binds to preformed heterodimers to form ISGF3, so that the level of p48 can influence the steady-state amount of heterodimer. The expression of p48 is usually low in most cell types but can be induced by IFN-γ. Thus, the heterodimer may be directed either to form ISGF3 or to bind to a selected set of GAS elements depending on the availability of p48, which thus may modulate the response to IFN-α in an IFN-γ-dependent manner.We manipulated the amounts of STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers and STAT1 homodimers in transfected U6A cells to reveal that both can function to stimulate transcription of the IRF-1 gene in response to IFN-α. However, a small amount of heterodimer is sufficient to promote a high level of IRF-1 induction, revealing that this novel factor is a potent transcriptional activator. The STAT1 homodimers induced by IFN-α activate IRF-1 transcription less strongly. Our results suggest that, depending on the level of p48, STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers can play a major role in activating IRF-1 transcription in response to IFN-α.We showed by deletion analysis that the acidic domain of STAT2 is important for the transcriptional activation of the IRF-1 gene. The same region is also important for transcriptional activation of ISRE-containing genes(29.Qureshi S.A. Leung S. Kerr I.M. Stark G.R. Darnell Jr., J.E. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1996; 16: 288-293Crossref PubMed Scopus (148) Google Scholar). It is possible that the acidic domain of STAT2 may interact with the same basic transcription factor(s) at the start sites of these genes. We detected truncated heterodimers and STAT1 homodimers in U6A cells transfected with a series of STAT2 proteins carrying C-terminal deletions and found that decreased IRF-1 induction correlated with shortening of the STAT2 acidic domain. The STAT1 homodimers formed in these cells are insufficient to induce IRF-1 transcription, probably because they fail to compete effectively with the defective heterodimers.Although a STAT1-STAT3 heterodimer (complex B) was detected using the IR element probe, this species is unlikely to be important for IFN-α-mediated IRF-1 gene expression because the amount of complex B is very low. The role of STAT3 in the IFN-α signaling pathway remains unclear.In summary, we have demonstrated an alternative transcriptional activation pathway mediated by a novel transcription factor that is likely to be a STAT1-STAT2 heterodimer. The heterodimer binds to the IR element of the IRF-1 gene and the GAS element of the Fcγ gene and is a potent transcriptional activator of the IRF-1 gene. Since the IRF-1 protein has been found to be a tumor suppressor (33.Harada H. Kitagawa M. Tanaka N. Yamamoto H. Harada K. Ishihara M. Taniguchi T. Science. 1993; 259: 971-974Crossref PubMed Scopus (427) Google Scholar) and a mediator of apoptosis(34.Tamura T. Ishihara M. Lamphier M.S. Tanaka N. Oishi I. Aizawa S. Matsuyama T. Mak T.W. Taki S. Taniguchi T. Nature. 1995; 376: 596-599Crossref PubMed Scopus (418) Google Scholar), the STAT1-STAT2 heterodimer may play an important role in the antiproliferative response mediated by type I IFNs. INTRODUCTIONMany cytokine and growth factor signaling pathways utilize proteins of the JAK ( 1Abbreviations used are: JAKJanus family kinases, including TYK2 and JAK1EMSAelectrophoretic mobility shift assayFcγhigh affinity immunoglobulin G chain receptor geneGAFγ-activated factorGASγ-activated sequenceIFNinterferonIRinverted repeatIRF-1interferon response factor-1ISGF3interferon-stimulated gene factor 3ISREinterferon-stimulated response elementp4848-kDa DNA binding component of ISGF3SH2Src-homology domain 2STATsignal transducer and activator of transcriptionWAF-1wild-type p53-activated factor 1.) and STAT families (1.Schindler C. Darnell Jr., J.E. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 1995; 64: 621-651Crossref PubMed Scopus (1640) Google Scholar, 2.Darnell Jr., J.E. Kerr I.M. Stark G.R. Science. 1994; 264: 1415-1421Crossref PubMed Scopus (4950) Google Scholar, 3.Ihle J.N. Kerr I.M. Trends Genet. 1995; 11: 69-74Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (818) Google Scholar). The IFN-α pathway involves activation of TYK2, JAK1, STAT1, and STAT2. The two STAT proteins are phosphorylated on conserved tyrosine residues by the JAK family kinases when IFN-α binds to the receptor complex(3.Ihle J.N. Kerr I.M. Trends Genet. 1995; 11: 69-74Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (818) Google Scholar). Activated STAT1 and STAT2 associate with the DNA-binding protein p48 to form the transcription factor ISGF3, which recognizes an interferon-stimulated response element (ISRE, consensus: AGTTTCNNTTTCN(C/T)) (2.Darnell Jr., J.E. Kerr I.M. Stark G.R. Science. 1994; 264: 1415-1421Crossref PubMed Scopus (4950) Google Scholar) present in many promoters activated by IFN-α (for examples, see (4.Porter A.C.G. Chernajovsky Y. Dale T.C. Gilbert C.S. Stark G.R. Kerr I.M. EMBO J. 1988; 7: 85-92Crossref PubMed Scopus (179) Google Scholar, 5.Reid L.E. Brasnett A.H. Gilbert C.S. Porter A.C.G. Gewert D.R. Stark G.R. Kerr I.M. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. 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Biol. 1991; 11: 5147-5153Crossref PubMed Scopus (110) Google Scholar). The GAS DNA sequences (consensus: TTNCNNNAA) recognized by GAF serve as binding sites for various cytokine- or growth factor-activated STAT proteins, including STAT3 homodimers(11.Akira S. Nishio Y. Inoue M. Wang X.J. Wei S. Matsusaka T. Yoshida K. Sudo T. Naruto M. Kishimoto T. Cell. 1994; 77: 63-71Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (864) Google Scholar, 12.Zhong Z. Wen Z. Darnell Jr., J.E. Science. 1994; 264: 95-98Crossref PubMed Scopus (1692) Google Scholar), STAT1-STAT3 heterodimers(11.Akira S. Nishio Y. Inoue M. Wang X.J. Wei S. Matsusaka T. Yoshida K. Sudo T. Naruto M. Kishimoto T. Cell. 1994; 77: 63-71Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (864) Google Scholar, 12.Zhong Z. Wen Z. Darnell Jr., J.E. Science. 1994; 264: 95-98Crossref PubMed Scopus (1692) Google Scholar), STAT4(13.Zhong Z. Wen Z. Darnell Jr., J.E. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1994; 91: 4806-4810Crossref PubMed Scopus (338) Google Scholar), STAT5(14.Wakao H. Gouilleux F. Groner B. EMBO J. 1994; 13: 2182-2191Crossref PubMed Scopus (712) Google Scholar, 15.Gouilleux F. Wakao H. Mundt M. Groner B. EMBO J. 1994; 13: 4361-4369Crossref PubMed Scopus (524) Google Scholar, 16.Mui A.L.-F. Wakao H. O'Farrell A.-M. Harada N. Miyajima A. EMBO J. 1995; 14: 1166-1175Crossref PubMed Scopus (537) Google Scholar), and STAT6(17.Kotanides H. Reich N.C. Science. 1993; 262: 1265-1267Crossref PubMed Scopus (230) Google Scholar).Transcription of the IRF-1 gene is inducible by both IFN-α and IFN-γ. A 16-kb 5′-flanking region that mediates a response to either IFN-α or -γ does not contain an ISRE, and the induction of IRF-1 by IFN-α is independent of the p48 subunit of ISGF3 (18.Sims S.H. Cha Y. Romine M.F. Gao P.-Q. Gottlieb K. Deisseroth A.B. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1993; 13: 690-702Crossref PubMed Scopus (249) Google Scholar, 19.Haque S.J. Williams B.R.G. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 19523-19529Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 20.Pine R. Canova A. Schindler C. EMBO J. 1994; 13: 158-167Crossref PubMed Scopus (339) Google Scholar). Transcriptional activation of this IRF-1 promoter segment by IFNs requires a palindromic GAS element, the IR element, which lies about 110 bases upstream of the transcription start site. IFN-inducible transcription factors containing STAT1 bind to the IR element in vitro.In this report, we demonstrate the formation of a novel IFN-α-inducible DNA-binding factor consisting of STAT1 and STAT2. Although this factor does not include p48, the level of p48 protein does affect the balance between the novel factor and ISGF3. We propose that transcriptional activation of the IRF-1 gene involves interaction of the IR element with either a STAT1-STAT2 heterodimer or a STAT1 homodimer.
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