Sleep Disorders Associated with Primary Mitochondrial Diseases
2014; American Academy of Sleep Medicine; Volume: 10; Issue: 11 Linguagem: Inglês
10.5664/jcsm.4212
ISSN1550-9397
AutoresRyan Ramezani, Peter W. Stacpoole,
Tópico(s)Coenzyme Q10 studies and effects
ResumoFree AccessObstructive Sleep ApneaSleep Disorders Associated with Primary Mitochondrial Diseases Ryan J. Ramezani, B.S., Peter W. Stacpoole, Ph.D., M.D. Ryan J. Ramezani, B.S. Department of Medicine, University of Florida, College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL , Peter W. Stacpoole, Ph.D., M.D. Address correspondence to: Peter W. Stacpoole, Ph.D., M.D., PO Box 100226, Gainesville, FL 32610-0226 E-mail Address: [email protected] Department of Medicine, University of Florida, College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Diabetes, and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida, College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL Published Online:November 15, 2014https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.4212Cited by:25SectionsAbstractPDF ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack Citations AboutABSTRACTStudy Objectives:Primary mitochondrial diseases are caused by heritable or spontaneous mutations in nuclear DNA or mitochondrial DNA. Such pathological mutations are relatively common in humans and may lead to neurological and neuromuscular complication that could compromise normal sleep behavior. To gain insight into the potential impact of primary mitochondrial disease and sleep pathology, we reviewed the relevant English language literature in which abnormal sleep was reported in association with a mitochondrial disease.Design:We examined publications reported in Web of Science and PubMed from February 1976 through January 2014, and identified 54 patients with a proven or suspected primary mitochondrial disorder who were evaluated for sleep disturbances.Measurements and Results:Both nuclear DNA and mitochondrial DNA mutations were associated with abnormal sleep patterns. Most subjects who underwent polysomnography had central sleep apnea, and only 5 patients had obstructive sleep apnea. Twenty-four patients showed decreased ventilatory drive in response to hypoxia and/or hypercapnia that was not considered due to weakness of the intrinsic muscles of respiration.Conclusions:Sleep pathology may be an underreported complication of primary mitochondrial diseases. The probable underlying mechanism is cellular energy failure causing both central neurological and peripheral neuromuscular degenerative changes that commonly present as central sleep apnea and poor ventilatory response to hypercapnia. Increased recognition of the genetics and clinical manifestations of mitochondrial diseases by sleep researchers and clinicians is important in the evaluation and treatment of all patients with sleep disturbances. Prospective population-based studies are required to determine the true prevalence of mitochondrial energy failure in subjects with sleep disorders, and conversely, of individuals with primary mitochondrial diseases and sleep pathology.Citation:Ramezani RJ, Stacpoole PW. Sleep disorders associated with primary mitochondrial diseases. J Clin Sleep Med 2014;10(11):1233-1239.INTRODUCTION"Primary" mitochondrial diseases are heritable or spontaneous inborn errors of metabolism in which the conversion of substrate fuels into energy is perturbed by loss-of-function mutations in genes encoded by either nuclear or mitochondrial DNA (nDNA; mtDNA). In turn, these mutations give rise to functional defects in mitochondrial enzymes crucial to aerobic metabolism and oxidative phosphorylation (Figure 1). Elevation of blood and/or cerebrospinal fluid lactate is a non-diagnostic, but prevalent, biomarker of mitochondrial disorders. The commonest cause of congenital lactic acidosis (CLA; Table 1) is deficiency of the nuclear-encoded pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC). PDC is located in the mitochondrial matrix and irreversibly decarboxylates pyruvate to acetyl CoA. Thus, PDC functions as a gate-keeper enzyme, linking glycolysis in the cytoplasm to the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle in mitochondria.1,2 Deficiencies in pyruvate carboxylase and certain TCA cycle enzymes can very rarely cause CLA. However, most other etiologies are due to one or more deficiencies in Complexes I – V of the respiratory chain that ultimately reduce molecular oxygen to water and synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.Figure 1 Major pathways of cellular energy metabolism (A). Glycolysis in the cytoplasm is linked to the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle in mitochondria by the multi-component pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC), which irreversibly decarboxylates pyruvate acetyl CoA, an intermediate that is also formed as a product of the β-oxidation of long-chain fatty acyl CoAs (LCF acyl CoAs). Alternatively, pyruvate is carboxylated by pyruvate carboxylase to oxaloacetate. Reducing equivalents (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide NADH; flavin adenine dinucleotide, FADH2) are generated by reactions catalyzed by the PDC and the TCA cycle and donate electrons (e−) that enter the respiratory chain (B) at NADH ubiquinone-oxidoreductase (Complex I) or at succinate-ubiquinone oxidoreductase (Complex II). Electrons from Complexes I and II are transferred via coenzyme Q10 to ubiquinol-cytochrome c reductase (Complex III). Cytochromic oxidase (Complex IV) catalyses the reduction of molecular oxygen to water. Electron transfer at Complex I, III, and IV is coupled to the pumping of protons (H+) from the mitochondrial matrix to the inter-mitochondrial space. These protons are utilized by ATP synthase (Complex V) to generate ATP from ADP, thus completing the process of oxidative phosphorylation. All the enzymes of the PDC, the β-oxidation pathway and the TCA cycle are encoded by nuclear DNA (nDNA). Of the approximately 97 subunits comprising the respiratory chain complexes, only 13 are encoded by mitochondrial DNA, and the rest are nuclear-encoded (mtDNA:nDNA): Complex I (7:∼46); Complex II (0:4); Complex III (1:10); Complex IV (3:10); and Complex V (2:14). Panel B from reference5 (used with permission).Download FigureTable 1 Terminology used in this review.Table 1 Terminology used in this review.All nucleated eukaryotic cells contain mitochondria and, hence, are subject to inherited or spontaneous mutations in these enzymes of energy metabolism. Consequently, it is not surprising that such primary mitochondrial diseases exhibit protean clinical complications, in which lactic acidosis is a frequent biomarker of local or systemic energy failure. Because neurons and myocytes rely primarily on mitochondrial glucose oxidation to meet their high energy demands, mitochondrial disorders typically manifest clinically as progressive neurological and neuromuscular degeneration, although any tissue and organ system can be affected.3–6Most summaries of the natural history of primary mitochondrial diseases do not include sleep disturbances in the clinical spectrum or evaluation and treatment strategies.2,5,7,8 However, the dependency of normal sleep on both neurological and neuromuscular integrity infers a strong relationship between mitochondrial dysfunction and sleep pathology. To address this issue, we critically reviewed literature associating sleep disturbances with the clinical presentation and course of primary mitochondrial diseases. We propose that this pathophysiological relationship be considered in future mechanistically oriented research on sleep and in the clinical assessment of sleep disturbances in the general population.METHODSWe used Web of Science and PubMed to identify all English language publications from February 1976 through January 2014 that described patients who were diagnosed with a primary mitochondrial disease associated with sleep-related problems and/or in whom polysomnography (PSG) was performed. Key terminologies we employed were deficiency of any of the respiratory chain complexes and various names and acronyms (see Results) denoting specific mitochondrial diseases or syndromes, coupled with different combinations of sleep disorder terms, such as central or obstructive sleep apnea and PSG. We found 18 publications in which 54 patients were described. The patients and their clinical findings were grouped, when possible, by disease or syndrome, according to modern biochemical and/ or molecular genetic diagnostic criteria.9–13RESULTSTable 2 summarizes the diagnostic and clinical characteristics of 54 subjects with a proven or probable primary mitochondrial disease.14–31 All patients were diagnosed with a sleep disorder and/or had complaints of abnormal sleep, based on family report or self-report.Table 2 Summary of patients and findings.Table 2 Summary of patients and findings.Table 2 Summary of patients and findings.Two patients had PDC deficiency. Patient 1, a 7-year-old boy with biochemically proven PDC deficiency, was diagnosed with central type sleep apnea syndrome, following radiological, electrophysiological, and pulmonary function criteria requiring tracheostomy and assisted ventilation.14 Patient 2 was a 13-month-old girl with classical radiological evidence of Leigh syndrome (Table 1) and cortical atrophy whose clinical picture included psychomotor retardation and hypotonia, both typical manifestations of the enzyme defect.15 Further evaluation of this child at age 7 years disclosed progressive disturbance in both auditory and somatosensory evoked potentials, coupled with polysomnographic evidence of abnormalities in both the tonic and phasic components of sleep during REM. Patient 3 was a 27-year-old woman with biochemically proven complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase) deficiency in whom PSG showed no apneic episodes despite significant desaturation during sleep, consistent with a state of hypoventilation.16Molecular genetic testing resulted in the definitive diagnosis of a mitochondrial disease in subjects 4-14. Biopsied skeletal muscle from patient 4, an obese 23-year-old woman who had a history of loud snoring, revealed 91% heteroplasmy for the mtDNA NARP mutation (nucleotide 8993).17 PSG showed severe obstructive sleep apnea, hypopnea, and central apnea. Patient 5 was a 37-year-old man with diabetes who had the most common mtDNA point mutation for MELAS, an A→ G tRNA leu(UUR) substitution at amino acid position 3243.18 Of interest is that this individual had none of the symptomatology typically associated with MELAS (Table 1). However, he suffered from chronic, often extreme, insomnia and was diagnosed with delayed sleep phase syndrome. Patient 6, a 21-year-old man with the identical A3243G mutation manifested gait and visual disturbance and other typical signs and symptoms of MELAS (headaches, dizziness, vomiting and stroke-like episodes). He also presented with hypoxic ventilatory depression and chronic hypoventilation of uncertain etiology.19 Following experimental exposure to hypoxia, his respiratory rate decreased, but tidal volume did not change. Sleep PSG was not performed. Patient 7 was a 48-year-old man with mitochondrial myopathy and the presence on muscle biopsy of multiple mtDNA mutations: A5466G; GA7912A and T10601C. His PSG revealed central sleep apnea, with 19 apneic episodes/hour.20Subjects 8-15 had Leigh syndrome and demonstrated both diversity in their molecular genetic etiologies and sleep pathologies on PSG.21–23 Patient 8, a 3-year-old girl with the pathological mtDNA mutation A8334G, had central sleep apnea. Patient 9, a 1-year-old boy with the T8993G mutation, also had central sleep apnea by PSG, while the PSG of patient 10, a 19-year-old girl with the T9176C mutation, showed obstructive sleep apnea. In contrast, mixed central and obstructive sleep apnea was diagnosed in a 10-year-old-girl with the same pathological mutation (Patient 11). Patient 12 year a 12-year-old girl with a MERRF/Leigh overlap syndrome caused by an A8344G mtDNA mutation. Patient 13 was a 2-year-old boy with Alpers/Leigh overlap syndrome due to an A8993G substitution in mtDNA who had severe apneic breathing, although PSG could not differentiate between central or obstructive pathology.21 Patient 14, a 17-year-old girl, had Leigh syndrome of undetermined etiology, myopathy, obesity, and obstructive sleep apnea.22Seventeen cases demonstrated clinical and/or muscle biopsy findings consistent with a primary mitochondrial disease etiology without definitive biochemical or molecular genetic proof of an enzymatic defect or pathological nDNA or mtDNA mutation. Patient 15 was a 24-year-old male with encephalomyopathy who was diagnosed with Leigh syndrome in view of clinical and neuroradiological findings, although genetic testing did not identify a causative mutation.23Patients 16-18 showed depressed ventilatory response to hypoxia; patient 16, a 31-year-old woman with RRF found on muscle biopsy, also exhibited depressed ventilatory drive to hypercapnia.24 PSG was not performed in these subjects and the investigators surmised that their sleep abnormalities were attributable to a defect in central and/or peripheral chemoreceptor function, rather than to an intrinsic weakness in the muscles of respiration.Patients 19-35 were diagnosed with PEO or Kearns-Sayre syndrome on the basis of clinical findings and muscle biopsy studies that showed the presence of RRFs and/or other myopathic changes.25,26 Subjects 19-22 exhibited depressed ventilatory drive in response to hypoxia and hypercapnia that was not considered due to weakness of respiratory muscles. Thirteen patients had PEO due either to a point mutation or a deletion of mtDNA, and patients 36-42 had a mutation in POLG, causing disruption in mtDNA replication.Patients 23-42 underwent extensive evaluation at a single Dutch neuromuscular center,26 and despite differences in the etiology of their mitochondrial disease, shared several common clinical features relevant to sleep pathology. Fifteen of the 20 patients had subjective nocturnal sleep dysfunction, as indicated by a Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index score > 5, while 6 subjects reported excessive daytime sleepiness (Epworth Sleepiness Scale score > 10) and 14 patients had symptoms of depression and/or anxiety (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale). Disruptive sleep architecture in these patients was variably manifested by decreased sleep efficiency, duration of wakefulness after sleep onset and increased frequencies of stage 1 sleep and arousal index. Cognitive impairment, proximal myopathy, ataxia, restless leg syndrome, dysarthria, and polyneuropathy were also common features. One subject had a mild obstructive component to sleep apnea, while at least 20% of the patients had central sleep apnea. However, subjective nocturnal sleep dysfunction did not predict PSG results.Patient 43 was a 46-year-old man who had PSG evidence of central sleep apnea, and mitochondrial encephalomyopathy, based on muscle biopsy.27 He also had an abnormally elevated blood lactate-pyruvate response during exercise and elevated lactate and pyruvate concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid. This patient's respiratory disturbance was determined to be primarily due to brainstem involvement, based on high-signal intensity lesions from midbrain to medulla seen on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and on tests of both somatosensory and brainstem auditory evoked potentials. Phrenic nerve conduction velocity was also prolonged, which could contribute to the patient's disturbed respiration. Patient 44 had LHON due to a common point mutation, whose central sleep apnea was associated with excessive daytime sleepiness and oxygen desaturation up to 72% SpO2 during sleep.28 Patient 45 had an undefined mitochondrial encephalopathy and MRI findings consistent with Leigh syndrome, whose abnormal sleep architecture was characterized by hypnic myoclonus, prolonged sleep onset, and reduced sleep efficiency.29Patients 46-54 had ophthalmoplegia and RRFs on muscle biopsy, and all but patient 52 were reported to have complex IV deficiency in skeletal muscle.30 PSG revealed that all patients had reduced ventilatory response to inhaled carbon dioxide. Patients 47, 48, and 50 exhibited no apneic episodes during sleep, although patient 48 desaturated during sleep irrespective of breathing rhythm. Patients 49 and 51-53 had mainly central-type sleep apnea.Patient 54 was a 34-year-old woman with Leigh syndrome, whose PSG also revealed central sleep apnea.31 The patient breathed normally while awake; however, immediately after the onset of sleep, her respiratory rate and tidal volume became irregular. Her oxygen saturation averaged 78% during NREM sleep and 45% during REM sleep. Central apneas (72/h of sleep) usually last 10 to 15 seconds, but reached a maximum of 35 seconds of REM sleep.DISCUSSIONThese data indicate that, of 54 subjects with proven or suspected mitochondrial disease, 47 had PSG recordings, and 12 of these individuals exhibited central sleep apnea. Twenty-four patients showed depressed ventilatory drive in response to hypoxia and/or hypercapnia that investigators did not attribute to weakness of the intrinsic muscles of respiration. Only five patients, at least two of whom were obese, showed signs of obstructive sleep apnea.Two practical questions begged by these findings pertain to the frequency of their occurrence relative to the prevalence of primary mitochondrial diseases in the general population and whether a family or personal history of mitochondrial diseases should be included in the initial evaluation of any person with suspected sleep pathology. This retrospective analysis can only hint at the true associations between mitochondrial disease and abnormal sleep. However, at least 1:200 ostensibly healthy humans are reported to harbor at least one pathological mtDNA mutation potentially capable of causing disease in the offspring of female carriers.32 Although most such carriers are unlikely to ever exhibit clinical signs or symptoms, up to 1:5000 people in the general population will ultimately clinically manifest a mtDNA disease.33,34 In addition, all the PDC components and the vast majority of the subunits of the respiratory chain are nuclear encoded. Thus, nDNA and mtDNA mutations in genes encoding enzymes of mitochondrial fuel metabolism are common causes of human morbidity. Furthermore, because highly oxidative tissues, such as the nervous system and muscle, are so vulnerable to disruption of mitochondrial energetics, it is reasonable to assume that disordered sleep may be one sign of dysfunction affecting these organ systems. Indeed, chronic fatigue and diminished exercise tolerance are common complications or primary mitochondrial diseases2,5 that could reflect, at least in part, abnormal sleep patterns unrecognized by affected individuals, their families and their healthcare providers.What underlying mechanisms beyond energy failure might contribute to sleep pathology in mitochondrial disease? Neuromuscular degeneration and hypotonia are also classic clinical manifestations of mitochondrial diseases and were highly represented in the patients described in this review. Because even healthy subjects experience some loss of respiratory muscle tone during REM sleep, it would follow that mitochondrial disease patients have increased susceptibility to REM-associated hypotonia and hypoxemia, as occurs in patients with other forms of neurodegenerative disease.27 Although weakness of respiratory and upper airway muscles would contribute to sleep-disordered breathing, an additional potentially important contributing factor could be brainstem involvement that is particularly common in patients with Leigh syndrome or following stroke-like episodes in patients with MELAS.18 Others have observed characteristic respiratory patterns in individuals with Leigh syndrome, including post-sigh apnea, hiccup, and apneusis that could reflect compromise of dorsal root ganglion neurons proximate to the solitary tract nucleus.20We conclude from this retrospective review that abnormal sleep patterns may be underreported complications of patients with primary mitochondrial disorders. The basic underlying mechanism of cellular energy failure results in both central neurological and peripheral neuromuscular degenerative changes that are reflected, to variable degrees, as central sleep apnea and poor ventilatory responses to hypercapnia. In turn, disordered sleep in affected patients contributes to a vicious cycle of progressive daytime fatigue, hypotonia, and exercise intolerance. This self-perpetuating pattern is similar to the positive feedback loop experienced by many other individuals whose sleep disturbances are not known to be caused by a primary mitochondrial disease. However, it is this very similarity in clinical presentation and course that has masked the true prevalence and underlying mechanisms of sleep pathology in primary mitochondrial diseases, which can only be satisfactorily addressed by prospective, population-based studies.There are no proven treatments for any primary mitochondrial disease, so traditional interventions are supportive, yet anecdotal. Treatment of sleep disturbances may be one of the few options to improve the quality of life of affected patients. Thus, we suggest that increased attention by sleep researchers to a patient's family history of maternally transmitted disorders and awareness of the multisystem clinical features of mitochondrial diseases may be critical to the differential diagnosis of all patients with sleep disturbances.DISCLOSURE STATEMENTThis was not an industry supported study. 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Volume 10 • Issue 11 • November 15, 2014ISSN (print): 1550-9389ISSN (online): 1550-9397Frequency: Monthly Metrics History Submitted for publicationJune 1, 2014Submitted in final revised formJuly 1, 2014Accepted for publicationAugust 1, 2014Published onlineNovember 15, 2014 Information© 2014 American Academy of Sleep MedicineKeywordsmitochondrial diseasecongenital lactic acidosissleep apneaACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe authors thank Drs. Brian Fuehrlein, Paul Carney and Richard Berry for helpful comments and Ms. Candace Caputo for editorial assistance.PDF download
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