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Modelling plans and planning models: the cybernetic vision of a Swiss Integral Concept for Transport (1972–1977)

2010; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 26; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/02665433.2011.527545

1466-4518

Stefan Sandmeier,

Ecology, Conservation, and Geographical Studies

Abstract In order to match the Swiss transport policies with the changing demands of modern transport, the Swiss Federal Council decided in January 1972 to implement an expert commission. The commission was to analyse the Swiss transport system and to elaborate a comprehensive Swiss Integral Concept for Transport (SICT). The SICT was to coordinate the technical, economic, financial, environmental, social and political aspects of transport, thus providing the foundations of a transport policy for the next 25 years. To achieve their goal, the experts chose the cybernetic approach of Systems Analysis. It allowed them to model transportation networks and their spatial, environmental, economical, political and social effects and constraints as interacting elements of a cybernetic system. Furthermore, it provided a conceptual and methodological framework serving also as a model of the task and of the targeted workflow. Actual transport models and plans could be integrated in this model. Although a report with 40 policy suggestions was delivered, the SICT was bound to fail: the political implications of System Analysis turned out to be incompatible with the processes of decision‐making in Switzerland. The SICT's models and plans were too far from the political and societal realities. Its 'top‐down' character failed in the context of Switzerland's highly federalist and consensus‐oriented political system. Keywords: Swiss Integral Concept for Transporttransport planningspatial planningtransport policyCyberneticsSystems Analysismodellingpolicy adviceSwitzerland Notes 1. See Paul N. Edwards, 'Infrastructure and Modernity: Force, Time, and Social Organization in the History of Sociotechnical Systems', in Modernity and Technology, ed. Thomas J. Misa, Philip Brey and Andrew Feenberg (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003), 185–225; Dirk van Laak, 'Infra‐Strukturgeschichte', Geschichte und Gesellschaft 27 (2001): 367–93. 2. Swiss Federal Statistical Office, 'Strassenfahrzeugbestand nach Fahrzeuggruppe', http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/11/03/blank/key/fahrzeuge_strasse/bestand.html (accessed 20 August 2010); Hansjörg Siegenthaler and Heiner Ritzmann‐Blickenstorfer, eds., Historische Statistik der Schweiz (Zürich: Chronos, 1996), 779. Figures include buses, trucks and tractors. 3. Major Swiss cities such as Zürich, Basel, Berne and St. Gallen commissioned transport plans but even small towns as Bienne and Appenzell developed transport plans. 4. Barbara Schmucki, 'Cities as Traffic Machines: Urban Transport Planning in East and West Germany', in Suburbanizing the Masses: Public Transport and Urban Development in Historical Perspective, ed. Colin Divall and Winstan Bond (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003), 149–70. Most of Schmucki's findings for Germany apply to Switzerland as well. 5. Barbara Schmucki, Der Traum vom Verkehrsfluss. Städtische Verkehrsplanung seit 1945 im deutsch‐deutschen Vergleich (Frankfurt am Main: Campus, 2001). Specifically on Switzerland, see Ueli Haefeli, 'Stadt und Autobahn – eine Neuinterpretation', Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Geschichte 51, no. 2 (2001): 181–202; Jean‐Daniel Blanc, Die Stadt – ein Verkehrshindernis? Leitbilder städtischer Verkehrsplanung und Verkehrspolitik in Zürich 1945–1975 (Zürich: Chronos, 1993); George Kammann, Mit Autobahnen die Städte retten? Städtebauliche Ideen der Expressstrassen‐Planung in der Schweiz 1954–1964 (Zürich: Chronos, 1990). 6. Switzerland has three political levels: the Confederation (Swiss national state), the cantons and the communes. The Confederation incorporates 26 cantons and is only responsible for those areas where it is granted powers by the constitution, for example in foreign and security policy, customs or in enacting legislation applying to the whole of the Federal state. (The terms 'Confederation', 'federation' ('Bund') and 'federal' refer to the nation‐state throughout this article.) Political tasks not explicitly designated federal matters are the responsibility of the cantons. Under the Federal Constitution, the cantons can impose taxes and regulate policy areas such as education, culture or regional and transport planning on their territory. (The terms 'federalism' and 'federalist' express this powerful position of the cantons within the federation.) The communes are the lowest level of the state structure. The Swiss government, the Federal Council, consists of seven members. It leads the federal administration of Switzerland, each Councillor heading one of the seven federal executive departments. The two chambers of the parliament are the National Council and the Council of States. The National Council represents the Swiss population, the Council of States the individual cantons. Together, the two chambers constitute Switzerland's legislative power. In case of constitutional changes, a popular referendum is compulsory. In the case of new or changed laws, a referendum is held if at least 50,000 people or eight cantons have petitioned to do so. 7. Its realization started in 1960 and culminated during mid‐1970s. In 1980, 64% (1171 km) of the planned network was completed, including the road tunnel at the St. Gotthard opened the same year. Swiss Federal Statistical Office, 'Streckennetz nach Verkehrsträgern', http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/11/03/blank/key/infrastruktur.Document.21269.xls (accessed 20 August 2010). 8. Since 1958 more than 50% of the taxes on petrol had to be spent on the construction and maintenance of the highway system and the cantonal road networks. This appropriation initiated a positive feedback mechanism in which mass motorization, fuel consumption and road construction got interlinked: the higher the petrol consumption got, the more money was available for the extension of the road networks. In turn, more roads made cars more attractive. See Christoph M. Merki, 'Der Treibstoffzoll aus historischer Sicht: Von der Finanzquelle des Bundes zum Motor des Strassenbaus', in Das 1950er Syndrom. Der Weg in die Konsumgesellschaft, ed. Christian Pfister and Peter Bär (Bern: Haupt, 1995), 311–32. 9. Schweizerischer Bundesrat, 'Botschaft des Bundesrates an die Bundesversammlung zum Voranschlag der Schweizerischen Bundesbahnen für das Jahr 1969 (Vom 13. November 1968)', Schweizerisches Bundesblatt 2 (1968): 772–9. In 1968, SBB made a deficit of 15.6 million Swiss Francs. More negative results followed and reached 622.8 million Swiss Francs by 1975. Siegenthaler and Ritzmann‐Blickenstorfer, Historische Statistik der Schweiz, 774. 10. The planning commission for the highways had estimated in their final report (1958) one million motor vehicles in 1980. However, this figure had been surpassed by 1965 and reached 1.7 million vehicles by 1970. Swiss Federal Statistical Office, 'Strassenfahrzeugbestand nach Fahrzeuggruppe', http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/11/03/blank/key/fahrzeuge_strasse/bestand.Document.48969.xls (accessed 20 August 2010). 11. The construction of the Swiss highway network should have been finished by 1980 and cost 3.8 billion Swiss Francs. In 1970, only 35.4% (651 km) had been built but the cost had already reached 7.7 billion. This massive cost inflation overstretched the financial resources assigned to highway construction and caused a much slower realization of the network. Beratende Kommission für den Nationalstrassenbau, Bericht an das Eidg. Demaprtement des Innern betreffend Stand des Nationalstrassenbaues: Überprüfung des langfristigen Bauprogrammes und seine Finanzierung (Bern: EDI, 1971), 8; Robert Ruckli, 'Der schweizerische Nationalstrassenbau', Veröffentlichungen des Verkehrshauses der Schweiz 20 (1972), 7. 12. 'Angesichts der grossen Verkehrsprobleme, welche sich in der modernen Industriegesellschaft stellen, ist die Erarbeitung einer Gesamtkonzeption der schweizerischen Verkehrspolitik sachlich und zeitlich vordringlich geworden' (Due to the big transport problems encountered in modern industrial society, the elaboration of an integral concept of Swiss transport policy has become an urgent need). Schweizerischer Bundesrat, 'Bericht des Bundesrates an die Bundesversammlung über die Richtlinien für die Regierungspolitik in der Legislaturperiode 1968–1971 (Vom 15. Mai 1968)', Schweizerisches Bundesblatt 1 (1968): 1247. 13. GVK‐CH, ed., 'Bundesratsbeschluss vom 19.01.1972', in GVK‐Grundlagen (Bern: GVK‐CH, 1972), 1–3. In German, the SICT was called 'Gesamtverkehrskonzeption Schweiz (GVK‐CH)'. The English translation and abbreviation originate from the only SICT document in English, a summary of the SICT final report from: Swiss Federal Department of Transport, Communications and Energy (SCIT), ed., Summary of the Final Report of the Federal Commission for a Swiss Integral Concept of Transport (Bern: EVED, 1979). Wherever possible, I will quote from this document. Quotes and citations from all other SICT reports will be given in German (where needed, I will provide translations). All SICT working papers and reports were published under the name of 'Kommission für die Schweizerische Gesamtverkehrskonzeption GVK‐CH' (Federal Commission for a Swiss Integral Concept of Transport SICT). References will refer to GVK‐CH as author. 14. Vorberatender Ausschuss der Kommission GVK‐CH, Bericht über die Vorbereitungsarbeiten zur Einsetzung einer Kommission für die Schweizerische Gesamtverkehrskonzeption an den Vorsteher des EVED (Bern: EVED, 1971). 15. Schweizerischer Bundesrat, 'Bericht des Bundesrates über die Richtlinien für die Regierungspolitik 1968–1971', 1232: 'Die bedeutsame Aufgabe, eine Gesamtkonzeption der schweizerischen Verkehrspolitik zu erarbeiten, ist unabwendbar geworden. Da dabei Interessen der verschiedenen Verkehrsträger gegeneinander abzuwägen sind, müssen diese an der Aufgabe mitwirken, ebenso die Wirtschaftsverbände und die Wissenschaft' (The important task of elaborating an integral concept of Swiss transport policy has become unavoidable. Because the interests of the different transport modes must be balanced, their delegates as well as those of the economy and the sciences have to participate in the task). 16. SICT, Summary of the Final Report, 5. 17. For a list of all commission members and their designation, see GVK‐CH, Schlussbericht über die Arbeiten der Eidgenössischen Kommission für die schweizerische Gesamtverkehrskonzeption, erstattet zuhanden des Schweizerischen Bundesrates (SICT Final Report) (Bern: EVED, 1977), 332–42. 18. The board was identical to the expert group who had done the pre‐evaluation for SICT in 1971. 19. Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zürich. 20. For a list of the commissioned works, see GVK‐CH, Schlussbericht, 346–54. 21. Ulrich Klöti, 'Verkehr, Energie und Umwelt – Die Infrastruktur und ihre Begrenzung', in Handbuch politisches System der Schweiz, Vol. 4: Politikbereiche, ed. Gerhard Schmid (Bern: Haupt, 1993), 238. 22. Bundesratsbeschluss vom 19.01.1972, in GVK‐CH, GVK‐Grundlagen, §4: 'Die Gesamtverkehrskonzeption hat den politischen Behörden verschiedene Varianten gangbarer Wege aufzuzeigen, auf denen das System des privaten und öffentlichen Verkehrs derart der ständigen Entwicklung angepasst werden kann, dass folgenden Zielsetzungen entspricht: (a) Das Verkehrssystem soll auf optimale Weise der allgemeinen Wohlfahrt des Landes und den daraus abgeleiteten nationalen Aufgaben dienen […] (b) Das Verkehrssystem soll die Verkehrsbedürfnisse mit einem möglichst geringen zeitlichen und finanziellen Aufwand sowohl der Allgemeinheit als auch der Verkehrsteilnehmer […] befriedigen. (c) Das Verkehrssystem soll im Rahmen einer geordneten Siedlungsentwicklung die freie Wahl des Wohn‐, Arbeits‐, Einkaufs‐ und Erholungsortes sowie der Verkehrsmittel für Personen und Güter möglichst uneingeschränkt gewährleisten. (d) Das Verkehrssystem soll dem unverfälschten Wettbewerb so viel Spielraum belassen, als ohne Fehlinvestitionen einerseits und ohne Vernachlässigung unrentabler oder uninteressanter aber für die allgemeine Wohlfahrt wichtiger Verkehrsbedürfnisse andererseits möglich ist.' 23. A few years previously, this lack of federal competences in questions of urban transport had caused the failure of the planning process for urban expressways which should have been parts of the national highway system. See Blanc, Die Stadt – ein Verkehrshindernis? and Kammann, Mit Autobahnen die Städte retten? 24. See Peter Güller, 'Neuer Akzent: Europäische Vernetzung – Grenzen der Autonomie?', in 20 Jahre Gesamtverkehrskonzeption – wie weiter? Tagungsdokumentation T1 (Tagung vom 27.11.1997), ed. Felix Walter (Bern: EDMZ, 1998) (Berichte des NFP 41 'Verkehr und Umwelt'), 58–9. 25. J. Brian McLoughlin, Urban and Regional Planning. A Systems Approach (New York: Praeger, 1969), 91. 26. SICT, Summary of the Final Report, 7. 27. GVK‐CH, Schlussbericht, 209–12. 28. Ibid., 309–19. 29. For an overview of the implementation of SICT propositions, see Hans Ulrich Berger et al., Verkehrspolitische Entwicklungspfade in der Schweiz. Die letzten 50 Jahre (Zürich: Rüegg, 2009); Ueli Haefeli, 'Der grosse Plan und seine helvetische Realisierung. Die Gesamtverkehrskonzeption 1972–1977 und ihre Wirkung auf die schweizerische Verkehrspolitik', Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Geschichte 56 (2006): 86–95; Walter, 20 Jahre Gesamtverkehrskonzeption. 30. Ueli Haefeli seems to be the only historian who briefly touches some methodological aspects of the SICT: see Haefeli, 'Der grosse Plan und seine helvetische Realisierung', and Ueli Haefeli, Verkehrspolitik und urbane Mobilität. Deutsche und Schweizer Städte im Vergleich 1950–1990 (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 2008), esp. 90–2. Some (rather anecdotal) remarks on the analytical and organizational methods of the SICT can be found in Walter, 20 Jahre Gesamtverkehrskonzeption, esp. the articles by Jörg Oetterli, 3–12 and Carl Hidber, 13–18. 31. The abbreviation 'OR' for Operations Research/Operational Research has become commonplace in literature whereas the term Systems Analysis is almost never abbreviated. Following this convention I will use 'OR' and 'Systems Analysis' throughout the text. 32. It is not easy to distinguish the two concepts clearly as they draw on the same principles and stem from the same sources. Some authors use them fuzzily or even synonymously. See for example C. West Churchman, The Systems Approach (New York: Delta Book, 1968), and C. West Churchman, Russel L. Ackoff, and Leonard E. Arnoff, Introduction to Operations Research (New York: Wiley, 1957). According to McLoughlin, OR 'applies systems thinking via Systems Analysis to real‐life situations'. McLoughlin, Urban and Regional Planning, 75. 33. Thomas P. Hughes and Agatha C. Hughes, Introduction to Systems, Experts, and Computers: The Systems Approach in Management and Engineering, World War II and After (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), 1. 34. See for example Stafford Beer, 'What has Cybernetics to do with Operational Research?', Operational Research 1 (1959): 1–21; Stafford Beer, Cybernetics and Management (London: The English Universities Press, 1959); Stafford Beer, Decision and Control: The Meaning of Operational Research and Management Cybernetics (London: Wiley, 1966); Churchman, Ackoff, and Arnoff, Introduction to Operations Research. 35. John E. Gibson, William T. Scherer, and William F. Gibson, How To Do Systems Analysis (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2007), 7. 36. Ibid., 5. 37. Hughes and Hughes, Introduction to Systems, 1. 38. Philipp Semprevivo, Systems Analysis: Definition, Process, And Design (Chicago, IL: Science Research Associates, 1976), 7; see also Churchman, Systems Approach. 39. Edward S. Quade and Wayne I. Boucher, eds., Introduction to Systems Analysis and Policy Planning: Applications in Defense (New York: Elsevier, 1968), 2. 40. Wladyslaw Findeisen and Edward S. Quade, 'The Methodology of Systems Analysis: An Introduction and Overview', in Handbook of Systems Analysis, Vol. I: Overview of Uses, Procedures, Applications, and Practice, ed. Hugh J. Miser and Edward S. Quade (Chichester: Wiley, 1985), 117–49; Francis Heylighen and An Vranckx, 'Systems Analysis', in Web Dictionary of Cybernetics and Systems, http://cleamc11.vub.ac.be/ASC/SYSTEM_ANALY.html (accessed 20 August 2010). 41. Searching for the history of Systems Analysis and OR, one will find a multitude of short introductory chapters and synoptic paragraphs in text books on Systems Analysis and OR written by systems analysts and OR‐practitioners. See for example James Digby, 'Operations Research and Systems Analysis at RAND, 1948–1967', OR/MS Today 15, no. 5 (1988): 10–13; Churchman, Systems Approach; Gibson, Scherer, and Gibson, How To Do Systems Analysis. Some aspects are covered in the historiography of Cybernetics and Systems Theory, for example in Andrew Pickering, 'Cybernetics and the Mangle: Ashby, Beer and Pask', Social Studies of Science 32, no. 3 (2002): 413–37; Michael Hagner and Erich Hörl, eds., Die Transformation des Humanen. Beiträge zur Kulturgeschichte der Kybernetik (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 2008); Claus Pias, ed., Cybernetics: Kybernetik – The Macy‐Conferences 1946–1953, Vol. 2: Essays & Documents (Zürich: Diaphanes, 2004); Hughes and Hughes, Introduction to Systems. More specifically on the history of Systems Analysis: Majone Giandomenico, 'Systems Analysis: A Genetic Approach', in Handbook of Systems Analysis, ed. Hugh J. Miser and Edward S. Quade (Chichester: Wiley, 1985), 33–66; Paul N. Edwards, The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996), esp. chap. 4. 42. Churchman, Systems Approach, ix. 43. See for example Karl W. Deutsch, The Nerves of Government: Models of Political Communication and Control (London: Free Press of Glencoe, 1963); David Easton, A Systems Analysis of Political Life (New York: Wiley, 1965). These two instant classics and other works, such as Quade and Boucher, Introduction to Systems Analysis, inspired a large body of German literature on cybernetic and systems thinking in politics. See for example Wolf‐Dieter Narr, Theoriebegriffe und Systemtheorie (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1969); Eberhard Lang, Zu einer kybernetischen Staatslehre: Eine Analyse des Staates auf der Grundlage des Regelkreismodells (Salzburg: Anton Pustet, 1970); Dieter Senghaas, 'Systembegriff und Systemanalyse: Analytische Schwerpunkte und Anwendungsbereiche in der Politikwissenschaft', in Texte zur Technokratiediskussion, ed. Claus Koch and Dieter Senghaas (Frankfrut am Main: Europäische Verlagsanstalt, 1970), 174–95; Dieter Aderhold, Kybernetische Regierungstechnik in der Demokratie: Planung und Erfolgskontrolle (München: Günter Olzog, 1973); Wolfgang Haseloff and Herbert Schramm, Kybernetik und Politik (Frankfurt am Main: Moritz Diesterweg, 1976). 44. Although some of the pioneering work was done within the Chicago Area Transportation Study during late 1950s and early 1960s, Faludi emphasizes the British efforts calling them 'a distinct school of thought'. Andreas Faludi, Planning Theory (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1973), 39. See also J. Douglas Carroll et al., Chicago Area Transportation Study. Final Report in Three Parts (Chicago, IL: City of Chicago/State of Illinois/U.S. Department of Commerce, 1959–1962). The most prominent exponents of the 'British school' are J.K. Friend and W.N. Jessop, 'The Nature of Planning', in Local Government and Strategic Choice. An Operational Research Approach to the Process of Public Planning, ed. J.K. Friend and W.N. Jessop (London: Travistock, 1969), 101–14; McLoughlin, Urban and Regional Planning; J. Brian McLoughlin, Control and Urban Planning (London: Faber & Faber, 1973); George A. Chadwick, A Systems View of Planning: Towards a Theory of the Urban and Regional Planning Process (Oxford: Pergamon, 1971). 45. The theoretical concepts of Cybernetics, OR and the Systems approach had left their traces in German reference works used by planners between 1960 and 1970: see for example Erwin Grochla, ed., Handwörterbuch der Organisation (Stuttgart: Poeschel, 1969); Akademie für Raumforschung und Landesplanung, ed., Handwörterbuch der Raumforschung und Raumordnung (Hannover: Gebrüder Jänecke Verlag, 1st ed. 1966, 2nd ed. 1970). For a critical review of international planning literature advocating the Systems view of planning, see Jakob Maurer, Literaturnotizen zur Raumplanung. Schriftenreihe zur Orts‐, Regional‐ und Landesplanung, vol. 20 (Zürich: ORL, 1974). 46. McLoughlin, Urban and Regional Planning, 91. 47. For Germany, see for example Werner Holste, 'Möglichkeiten und Grenzen bei der Planung des Systems Verkehr', in Das gesellschaftliche Leitbild für den Verkehr der Zukunft und die Aufgabe koordinierter Planung. Schriftenreihe der Deutschen Verkehrswissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft DVWG, vol. B9: Kolloquium III – Saarbrücken, ed. Deutsche Verkehrswissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft (DVWG) (Köln: DVWG, 1970), 69–90. 48. McLoughlin, Urban and Regional Planning, 91. 49. Michael Hascher, Politikberatung durch Experten: Das Beispiel der deutschen Verkehrspolitik im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Frankfrut am Main: Campus, 2006), 287–9; Hellmuth S. Seidenfuss, 'Möglichkeiten einer wissenschaftlichen Begründung der neuen Verkehrspolitik in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland', ÖVG Verkehrsannalen 25, no. 1 (1978): 7–19. 50. Aderhold, Kybernetische Regierungstechnik in der Demokratie, 10–11. 51. Andreas Faludi and Arnold van der Valk, Rule and Order: Dutch Planning Doctrine in the Twentieth Century (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1994), 115. 52. However, the systems approach had been involved with the formulation of the 'Landesplanerische Leitbilder der Schweiz' (Switzerland's General Concept for Spatial Planning) and the 'Teilleitbild Verkehr CK‐73' by the ORL‐Institute of ETH Zürich. See Martin Rotach et al., ed., Landesplanerische Leitbilder der Schweiz: Schlussbericht, 3 vols (Zürich: ORL‐Intitut EHT Zürich, 1971); Martin Rotach, Raumplanerisches Leitbild der Schweiz CK‐73: Eine Grundlage für das Gespräch zwischen Bund und Kantonen (Bern: EJPD, 1973). See also Carl Hidber, 'Gesamtverkehrskonzeption und Leitbild ⟨CK‐73⟩', Raumplanung Schweiz 3, no. 3 (1974): 27–30. Hidber, who was professor at the ORL Institute, had been the main author of the transport part of the CK‐73 concept, as well as several of the SICT staff members who had worked with the ORL Institute and had been involved with both concepts. At a regional scale, a study for Lausanne employed a form of organization and systems methodology very similar to that of the SICT. See Milan Crvčanin, 'Application de modèles intégrés à la planification des systèmes de transports de la région lausannoise', Swiss Journal of Economics and Statistics 109, no. 3 (1973): 357–73, esp. 368–70. 53. Faludi, Planning Theory, 39. 54. The only exception I found to date is the bibliography of a commissioned report by Alfred J. Gebert, Politikwissenschaft und Verkehr: Erstellung einer Übersicht der für die GVK‐CH massgebenden politologischen Literatur, GVK‐Auftrag Nr. 11 [Political science and transport: A review of SICT‐relevant literature in political science, SICT‐commission no. 11] (Bern: EVED, 1973), where some aspects of Cybernetics, Systems Theory and Systems Analysis are alluded to in a political context. 55. GVK‐CH, Systemabgrenzung GVK‐CH, Arbeitsunterlage Nr. 3 (Bern: EVED, 1973); GVK‐CH, Zusammenstellung von Problemen einer schweizerischen Gesamtverkehrskonzeption: Aufgrund der Beratung der Kommission GVK‐CH überarbeitete Fassung des geschäftsleitenden Ausschusses. Arbeitsunterlage Nr. 2 (Bern: EVED, 1973); GVK‐CH, Systemanlayse. Arbeitsunterlage Nr. 5 (Bern: EVED, 1972), 1–2. 56. GVK‐CH, Schlussbericht, 61–4; GVK‐CH, Operationales Ziel‐ und Messystem für die GVK‐CH. Arbeitsunterlage Nr. 16 (Bern: EVED, 1974). 57. SICT, Summary of the Final Report, 11–13. 58. 'In der Verkehrsplanung […] soll nicht mehr dem aus der Vergangenheit abgeleiteten Trend vorbehaltlos zum Durchbruch verholfen werden, sondern an erster Stelle steht die Festlegung von Zielen und Massnahmen, welche die Erreichung der Ziele gewährleisten sollen (zielorientiertes Planen)' [Transport planners should not try to realize trends derived from the past unchallenged. Rather, they should define goals and measures to ensure their realization (goal‐oriented planning)]. GVK‐CH, Leitstudie GVK‐CH. Teil I: Grundlagen, Methodik und bisherige Verkehrspolitik [SICT Pilot Study, Vol. I: Foundations, methodology and previous transport policy] (Bern: EVED, 1978), 9–10. 59. GVK‐CH, Leitstudie GVK‐CH, 3 vols (Bern: EVED, 1978). 60. SICT, Summary of the Final Report, 13. 61. GVK‐CH, Hauptstudie GVK‐CH: Basisvarianten [SICT Main study: Basic alternatives] (Bern: EVED, 1977). 62. SICT, Summary of the Final Report, 13. To evaluate the Basic (and later the Final) Alternatives, the SICT staff applied the OR concept of value analysis which allowed (in contrast to the customary cost/benefit analysis) the comparison of monetary quantitative aspects with non‐monetary qualitative aspects. SICT, Summary of the Final Report, 18. 63. GVK‐CH, Schlussbericht, 73–110. 64. Fernando Elichirigoity, Planet Management: Limits to Growth, Computer Simulation, and the Emergence of Global Spaces (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1999), 12. 65. SICT, Summary of the Final Report, 17. The method of four‐step modelling was first developed for the Chicago Area Transportation Study (see Note 44). During the 1960s it was refined and, by the 1970s, had become one of the standard tools of transport planners in the USA and Europe. For a detailed account of its development, see Roger L. Creighton, Urban Transportation Planning (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1970), esp. 245–67. On its diffusion to Britain, see William Solesbury and Alan Townsend, 'Transportation Studies and British Planning Practice', Town Planning Review 41, no. 1 (1970): 63–79. See also Juan de Dios Ortúzar and Luis G. Willumsen, Modelling Transport, 3rd ed. (Chichester: Wiley, 2006), 23–5; Werner Schnabel and Dieter Lohse, Grundlagen der Strassenverkehrstechnik und der Verkehrsplanung. Vol. 2: Verkehrsplanung, 2nd ed. (Berlin: Verlag für Bauwesen, 1997), 204–14; Carl Hidber et al., Verkehrsplanung: Vorlesungsunterlagen des Instituts für Verkehrsplanung, Transporttechnik, Strassen‐ und Eisenbahnbau, 3rd ed. (Zürich: IVT, 1985), 3.22–3.59. 66. SICT, Summary of the Final Report, 17. A considerable part of the used models had been developed and simulated with the software TRIPS (Transportation Improvements Programming System) by the engineering firm Jenny + Voorhees in Zürich and was run on the computer of the University of Zürich (SICT research commissions 4, 33, 33, 41, 43, 53, 66, 86, 96, 99d, 105, 115, 123). TRIPS had been developed by Alan M. Voorhees, one of the most prominent transport planners in the USA during 1950s and 1960s. It bundled more than 50 programmes carrying out different stages of the four‐steps‐model. See Crvčanin, Application de modèles intégrés, 368. Other models (for example potential and distribution models for domestic freight transport) were made by the SICT staff and the Institute for Transport Planning and Systems at ETH Zürich, where Hidber had his chair. 67. SICT, Summary of the Final Report, 16. 68. Ibid., 18. 69. Ibid. 70. The bill was passed to the parliament in December 1982, Schweizerischer Bundesrat, 'Botschaft über die Grundlagen einer koordinierten Verkehrspolitik (Teilrevision der Bundesverfassung) (Vom 20. Dezember 1982)', Schweizerisches Bundesblatt 1 (1983): 941–1061. 71. Alexander Schmidt‐Gernig, 'Das "kybernetische Zeitalter": Zur Bedeutung wissenschaftlicher Leitbilder für die Politikberatung am Beispiel der Zukunftsforschung der 60er und 70er Jahre', in Experten und Politik: Wissenschaftliche Politikberatung in geschichtlicher Perspektive, ed. Stefan Fisch and Wilfried Rudloff (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 2004), 349–68. 72. On the relations of utopia, politics and planning, see for example Barbara Goodwin and Keith Taylor, The Politics of Utopia. A Study in Theory and Practice (Oxford: Peter Lang, [1982] 2009); Dirk van Laak, 'Planung: Geschichte und Gegenwart des Vorgriffs auf die Zukunft', Geschichte und Gesellschaft 34 (2008): 305–26; Robert Jungk and Josef Mundt, eds., Der Griff nach der Zukunft: Planen und Freiheit (München: Kurt Desch, 1964); Helmut Klages, Planungspolitik: Probleme und Perspektiven der umfassenden Zukunftsgestaltung (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1971). The idea of applying Cybernetics to political processes is traced back to the French physicist André‐Marie Ampère who sketched his idea of 'Cybernétique' as a knowledge‐based 'art of governing the state' in the middle of the nineteenth century. See André‐Marie Ampère, Essais sur la philosophie des Sciences ou exposition analytique d'une classification naturelle de toutes les sciences. Seconde Partie (Paris, 1843), 140–143. See also Lang, Zu einer kybernetischen Staatslehre, 110–12; Joseph Vogl 'Regierung und Regelkreis. Historisches Vorspiel', in Cybernetics: Kybernetik, ed. Claus Pias, 67–79. 73. On the thought style of technocracy, see Hermann Lübbe, 'Technokratie. Politische und wirtschaftliche Schicksale einer philosophischen Idee', WeltTrends 18, no. 1 (1998): 39–61; Pietro Morandi, 'Zur Geschichte und Theorie der Technokratie', Berliner Debatte INITIAL 8, no. 3 (1997): 117–26; Koch and Senghaas, Texte zur Technokratiediskussion; Hans Lenk, ed., Technokratie als Ideologie: Sozialphilosophische Beiträge zu einem politischen Dilemma (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1973). 74. The expression 'machine à gouverner' was first used by French Abbé Louis Dubales in his 1948 review (Le Monde, 28 December 1948) of Norbert Wiener's book Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1948). 75. Pierre Bertaux, Maschine‐Denkmaschine‐Staa