Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

Regional resistance to central government policies: Ahmed Djemal Pasha, the governors of Aleppo, and Armenian deportees in the spring and summer of 1915

2010; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 12; Issue: 3-4 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/14623528.2010.528999

1469-9494

Hilmar Kaiser,

Global Peace and Security Dynamics

Abstract The case study discusses Ottoman deportation policies against Armenians between April and September 1915 in the province of Aleppo and in the region of Zeitun. Focusing on the role of the provincial authorities, 4th Army commanders, and the central government the article questions notions of an alleged Armenian revolt, claims about a coherent deportation policy according to a blue print, and assertions of a unified Committee of Union and Progress leadership. It will become clear that the first deportations were initiated locally and not by the central government. Moreover, later deportations met often with resistance by provincial and military authorities who followed own their agenda. Consequently, theses suggesting long-term genocidal planning and its coherent execution at all levels of government empire-wide need to be revised. Notes As I argue that Ahmed Djemal Pasha did not engage in acts of genocide against Armenians the term has not been utilized here. For an overview, see Hilmar Kaiser, ‘Genocide at the twilight of the Ottoman Empire’, in Donald Bloxham and A. Dirk Moses (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies (Oxford and New York City, NY: Oxford University Press, 2010), pp 365–385. Vahakn N. Dadrian, The History of the Armenian Genocide. Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus (Providence and Oxford: Berghahn Books, 1995), p 219. Vahakn N. Dadrian, ‘The comparative aspects of the Armenian and Jewish cases of genocide: a sociohistorical perspective’, in Alan S. Rosenbaum (ed), Is the Holocaust Unique? Perspectives on Comparative Genocide (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), p 124. See also Taner Akçam, A Shameful Act. The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility, trans. Paul Bessemer (New York, NY: Metropolitan Books, 2006), pp 7–8. Raymond H. Kévorkian, Le génocide des arméniens (Paris: Odile Jacob, 2006), pp 775–856. Vahakn N. Dadrian, ‘The role of Turkish physicians in the World War I genocide of Ottoman Armenians’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol 1, 1986, p 189, n. 45. Djelal Bey, ‘Ermeni Vekayii ve Esbab ve Tesiratı’, Vakit, No 407, 409, 410, 10, 12, 13 December 1918. Raymond H. Kévorkian, ‘Le sort des déportés dans les camps de concentration de Syrie et de Mésopotamie’, Revue de d'histoire arménienne contemporaine, Vol 2, 1998, p 59. ‘Son opposition semble plutôt relever d'une certaine rationalité militaire, consistant à profiter de la force de travail des déportés arméniens avant de songer à les liquider’. Raymond H. Kévorkian, Le genocide, p 840. Kévorkian ignored, however, evidence on Djemal's action that contradicted such claims. Hilmar Kaiser, At the Crossroads of Der Zor. Death, Survival, and Humanitarian Resistance in Aleppo, 1914–1917, in collaboration with Luther and Nancy Eskijian, (Reading: Taderon Press, 2001), pp 54, 61. For a preliminary study on Armenian survival strategies and humanitarian resistance at Aleppo, see Kaiser, Crossroads. Ali Fuat Erden, Birinci Dünya Harbinde Suriye Hâtıraları, Vol 1 (Istanbul: Halk Matbaası, 1954); Falih Rıfkı Atay, Zeytindağı (Istanbul: Hakimiyeti Milliye Matbaası, 1932), pp 120–121, 216–217. Yusuf Halaçoğlu, Facts on the Relocation of Armenians (1914–1918) (Ankara: Turkish Historical Society, 2002). Yusuf Halaçoğlu, Sürgünden Soykırıma. Ermeni İddiaları (Ankara: Babıali Yayıncılığı, 2006); Justin McCarthy, Esat Arslan, Cemalettin Taşkıran, and Ömer Turan, The Armenian Rebellion at Van (Salt Lake City, UT: University of Utah Press, 2006); Guenter Lewy, The Armenian Massacres in Ottoman Turkey (Salt Lake City, UT: The University of Utah Press, 2005). Taner Akçam, ‘Ermeni Meselesi Hallolunmuştur’. Osmanlı Belgelerine Göre Savaş Yıllarında Ermenilere Yönelik Politikalar (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2008), p 104. Akçam qualifies his thesis by stating that he has no direct proof for a single plan but argues that semblances and continuities between Greek and Armenians cases of ethnic cleansing (‘iki ayrı “temizlik” olayının’) support his thesis. In contrast to Akçam, Fuat Dündar maintains that Ottoman military defeats set a programme of ethnic cleansing into motion. In this perspective, espionage incidents or armed clashes were only excuses for implementing the plan. Fuat Dündar, A Crime of Numbers. The Role of Statistics in the Armenian Question (1878–1918) (New Brunswick, NJ and London: Transaction Publishers, 2010), p 72. ‘Little in the way of archival sources exists regarding the internal debate and ultimate intentions regarding the liquidation of the Armenian population. While the transcripts of the Istanbul Military Tribunal of 1919 shed some light on both the execution and the resistance to the deportations of Armenians in Yozgat and Trabzon, little is known about the interaction between the Committee of Union and Progress and the bureaucracy, let alone the manner and degree to which local officials carried out the deportations throughout Anatolia’. Ryan Gingeras, Sorrowful Shores: Violence, Ethnicity, and the End of the Ottoman Empire, 1912–1923 (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), p 37. Armenian memoir literature has not been utilized in this study as it focuses on the Ottoman administration. For Armenian accounts see: Kaiser, Crossroads, pp 11–12, 19–24. Teşkilât-ı Mahsusa leader Bahaeddin Shakir informed CUP General Secretary Midhat Shukru Bey on 28 August 1914. ‘We obtained the following statements during two meetings with Malumian, Vramian, and Rustomian. Firstly, they persistently suggest that we observe perfect neutrality until the end of the general war. Secondly, we found out that the establishment of Ottoman control over the Caucasus and even Caucasian autonomy gives them despair. Thirdly, they unequivocally state that if the Russians attack us they would join us in the defence. Fourthly, in case of us attacking the Caucasus they could not assure the cooperation of the Armenian committees there. In order to render their propaganda in this direction successful, they negotiate persistently and demand that the government should satisfy them with deeds. On this last matter we expect your instructions. Fithly, Vramian leaves in two days for Van while Malumian and the others leave for the Caucasus’. Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi, Dahiliye Nezâreti (DH). Şifre Kalemi (ŞFR) 438–123, Djemal (Acting Erzerum Governor) to Ministry of Interior, 28 August 1914, No. 42698, Secret and urgent. See also Dikran Mesrob Kaligian, Armenian Organization and Ideology under Ottoman Rule 1908–1914 (New Brunswick, NJ and London: Transaction Publishers, 2009), pp 343–347. DH.ŞFR, 44–200, Talaat to Adrianople, Erzerum, Adana, Bitlis, Bursa, Harput, Diarbekir provinces, Ismid, and Djanik districts, 6 September 1914 Emniyet-i Umumiye (EUM) Gen. 28. See also Uğur Ü. Üngör, ‘A Reign of Terror.’ CUP Rule in Diyarbekir Province, 1913–1923 (MA thesis, University of Amsterdam, 2005), p 35. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, Genelkurmay Başkanlığı, Arşiv Belgeleriyle Ermeni Faaliyetleri 1914–1918, Vol 1 (Ankara: Genelkurmay Askerî Tarih ve Stratejik Etüt ve Denetleme Başkanlığı Yayınları, 2005) (ABEF 1), pp 342–343, GHQ to 4th Army command, 5 March 1915. DH.EUM, 2 Şb, 54–20, Hakki to Ministry of Interior, Tarsus, 1 March 1915. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, Başbakanlık Devlet Arşivleri Genel Müdürlüğü, Osmanlı Arşivi Daire Bakanlığı, Osmanlı Belgelerinde Ermeniler (1915–1920) (Ankara: Başbakanlık Basımevi, 1994), p 20, (OBE), DH.ŞFR, 50–141, Talaat to Adana province, 2 March 1915, EUM 121. See also DH.EUM, İkinci Şube (EUM, 2 Şb), 5–14. ABEF 1, p 343, Djemal Pasha to GHQ, 28 February 1915, telegram 2247. DH.ŞFR, 40–45, Talaat to Adana, Aleppo province, 19 April 1914, EUM Spec. 147, 142. DH.EUM, 2 Şb, 68–30, Ministry of Interior to High Command for Syria, Beirut, Aleppo and Districts, 28 August 1914 telegram; DH.EUM, 2 Şb, 54–20, Djelal to Ministry, Aleppo, 16 September 1914; DH.ŞFR, 45–232, Minister to Aleppo province, 10 October 1914, EUM Spec. 39; DH.ŞFR, 45–232, Minister to Aleppo province, 10 October 1914, EUM Spec. 39. Şinasi Orel and Süreyya Yuca, The Talât Pasha ‘Telegrams.’ Historical Fact or Armenian Fiction (Nicosia: K. Rustem & Brother, 1983), p 106, doc. 10; Genelkurmay Askerî Tarih ve Stratejik Etüt (ATASE) Arşivi, 1/131 K: 2287–31/12 F: 1/10, Ali Münif to Ministry of War, 1September 1914, EUM Spec. 725. See also Askeri Tarih Belgeleri Dergisi, No. 81, 1982, doc 1806 (ATBD); Ali Rıza to Ministry of War, 3September 1914, EUM Spec. 725. Based on the same document, Kamuran Gürün states that this incident was an outright rebellion of the whole population: ‘The Armenians of Zeitun did not want to be under the Ottoman flag, and wished to protect their region by forming a volunteer regiment of Zeitun led by their own officers. As their request was naturally denied, they rebelled on 30 August.’ Kamuran Gürün, The Armenian File. The Myth of Innocence Exposed (Nicosia: K. Rustem & Brother, 1985), p 193. The evidence, however, does not support his claim but shows that the Ottoman authorities themselves saw the incident as nothing but a police matter. Djelal Bey, Ermeni, Vakit, No. 409, 12 December 1918. ATBD, No. 86, 1987, doc 2049, Muslim and Armenian notables to Ministry of War, 23 October 1914, telegram. DH.EUM, 2 Şb, 54–20, Djelal Bey to Ministry, Aleppo, 21 February 1915, No 976. DH.EUM, 2 Şb, 54–20, Djelal to Ministry, Aleppo, 3 March 1915. DH.EUM, 2 Şb, 54–20, Mümtaz to Ministry, Zeitun, 22 March 1915. DH.EUM, 2 Şb, 54–20, Mümtaz to Ministry, Zeitun, 27 March 1915. DH.EUM, 2 Şb, 54–20, Mümtaz to Ministry, Zeitun, 28 March 1915. DH.EUM, 2 Şb, 54–20, Mümtaz to Ministry, Zeitun, 29 March 1915. DH.EUM, 2 Şb, 68–34, Djelal to Ministry of Interior, 29 March 1915, in Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, Başbakanlık Devlet Arşivleri Genel Müdürlüğü, Osmanli Arşivi Daire Bakanlığı, Osmanlı Belgelerinde Ermenilerin Sevk ve Iskânı (Ankara: Sistem Ofset, 2007), pp 119–121 (SvI). See also DH.ŞFR, 466–92, Djelal to Ministry of Interior, Aleppo, 29 March 1915, No 3165. The orders were shared with German consul Roessler. Auswärtiges Amt, Politisches Archiv (AA-PA), Türkei 183/36, A 14801, Djemal Pasha to [Marash authorities], 31 March 1915, translation enclosure 4 in Rössler to Wangenheim, Aleppo, 12 April 1915, K. No 39, J. No 764. In September 1915, Djemal gave a French summary of the declaration to Oppenheim. AA-PA, Türkei 183/38, A 27584, 29 March 1915, enclosure 1 in Oppenheim to Bethmann Hollweg, Damascus, 29 August 1915. Djelal had been instructed accordingly by Fahri Pasha. ABEF 8, (Ankara: Genelkurmay ATASE ve Genelkurmay Denetleme Başkanlığı Yayınları, 2008), p 3. Based on the report, Halaçoğlu claims that the authorities had unearthed ‘a big plot against the Moslem population by the Armenian living in the Moslem quarter’ of Aintab. Halaçoğlu, Facts, p. 58. The document, however, does not mention any proven conspiracy. SvI, pp 119–121, DH.EUM, 2 Şb, 68–34, Djelal to Ministry of Interior, 29 March 1915. See also DH.ŞFR, 466–92, Djelal to Ministry of Interior, Aleppo, 29 March 1915, No 3165. DH.EUM, 2 Şb, 68–35, Muhtar to Ministry of Interior, Zeitun, 30 March 1915, telegram. ATBD, No 86, 1987, doc 2053, Djemal to GHQ, Damascus, 5 April 1915, telegram 3023. DH.ŞFR, 467–29, Djemal to Talaat, Jerusalem (HQ), 8 April 1915, No 1155/730. Erden had earlier published part of the telegram's substance. His claim that the Ministry of Interior opposed a compact settlement of the Zeitun Armenians in the Konia plains is, however, contradicted by the full text of the telegram. Erden, Hâtıraları, p 116. A German officer serving as Fahri's deputy gave a more sober description of the whole affair. In a letter to his wife he narrated the military deployment, political considerations, abuses by Ottoman officials, and the sad conditions at Zeitun. Eberhard Wolffskeel von Reichenberg an Sofie Wolffskeel von Reichenberg, Bagtsche-Adana, 17–24 April 1915, in Eberhard Wolffskeel von Reichenberg, Zeitoun, Mousa Dagh, Ourfa. Letters on the Armenian Genocide. Edited and introduced by Hilmar Kaiser (Princeton, NJ: Gomidas Institute, 2001), pp 37–45. ATBD, No. 81, 1982, doc 1823, Djemal Pasha to Enver Pasha, Jerusalem, 10 April 1915, telegram 3108. AA-PA, Türkei 183/37, A 17735, Blank to Schuchhardt, 15 April 1915, (copy), enclosure in Rössler to Bethmann Hollweg, Aleppo, 10 May 1915, K. No 55, J. No 1000. Wolffskeel, Letters, pp 37–45. AA-PA, Türkei 183/38, A 27584, Djemal to Deputy Commander, np, 15 April 1915 [French translation of extract], enclosure 2 in Oppenheim to Bethmann Hollweg, Damascus, 29 August 1915. DH.ŞFR, 52–48, Minister to Aleppo province, 20 April 1915, IAMM. DH.ŞFR, 468–54, Djelal to Ministry of Interior, Aleppo, 21 April 1915, No 7833. DH.ŞFR, 468–54, Djelal to Ministry of Interior, Aleppo, 21 April 1915, No 7833. United States National Archives, Record Group (RG) 59, 867.00/761, ‘Regarding Zeitoun and other villages’, Information from Dr Hamilton and Mr Ranney, enclosure in Jackson to Morgenthau, Aleppo, 21 April 1915 in Ara Sarafian (compiler), United States Official Records on the Armenian Genocide 1915-1917, (Princeton, NJ and London: Gomidas Institute, 2004), pp 12–13. Jackson shared the missionaries' assessment: ‘An interview was had with H.E. Djélal Bey, the Governor-General of Aleppo, but as Mr Merrill says, the former is not in a position to do anything to ameliorate the situation.’ RG 59, 867.00/761, Jackson to Morgenthau, Aleppo, 21 April 1915, in Sarafian, Records, p 7. OBE, p 21, DH.ŞFR, 52–51, Ali Münif to 4th Army command, 20 April 1915, IAMM No 11. DH.ŞFR, 468–97, Djemal to Talaat, Jerusalem (HQ), 25 April 1915, No 2469/714; DH.ŞFR, 468-98, Djemal to Ministry of Interior, Jerusalem (HQ), 25 April 1915, No. 2481/733; DH.ŞFR, 468-100, Djemal to Ministry of Interior, Jerusalem (HQ), 25 April 1915, No 2482/729. DH.ŞFR, 480-143, Nazim (Acting Governor) to Ministry of Interior, Konia, 24 July 1915, No. 17344; DH.ŞFR, 481–62, Nazim (Acting Governor) to Ministry of Interior, Konia, 28 July 1915, No 17875/318. Akcam, Hallolunmuştur, pp 72–74. ‘The problem of urgently settling refugees, who before the war had made a partial evacuation of Greek areas necessary, led to the targeting of the Zeytun and Dörtyol Armenian areas.’ Dündar, Crime of Numbers, p 74, see also pp 72–73. For an overview on Van, see Anahide Ter Minassian, ‘Van 1915’, in Richard Hovannisian (ed), Armenian Van/Vaspurakan (Costa Mesa: Mazda Publishers, 2000), pp 209–244. DH.ŞFR, 52–95, Minister to Adrianopel, Erzerum, Adana, Angora, Aidin, Bitlis, Aleppo, Bursa, Diarbekir, Sivas, Trebizond, Konia, Harput, Van provinces, Urfa, Ismid, Kutahia, Afion, Bolu, Djanik, Karesi, Cesarea, Marash, Nigde Eskishehir districts, 24 April 1915, EUM. SvI, pp 125–126, DH.ŞFR, 52–96/97/98, Minister to Adrianopel, Erzerum, Adana, Angora, Aidin, Bitlis, Aleppo, Bursa, Diarbekir, Sivas, Trebizond, Konia, Harput, Van provinces, Urfa, Ismid, Bolu, Djanik, Balikesir, Caesarea, Nighde, Eskishehir, Afion, Marash districts, 24 April 1915, EUM. See also ABEF 1, pp 424–425, Talaat to Enver, 24 April 1915, EUM 3052. For the names of those arrested in Constantinople see: Yusuf Sarınay, ‘What happened on April 24, 1915? The circular of April 24, 1915, and the Arrest of the Armenian Committee Members in Istanbul’, International Journal of Turkish Studies, Vol 14, No 1–2, 2008, pp 75–101. For arrests in the provinces see: ABEF 1, p 458, Aintab district governor to [?], 1 May 1915, telegram; DH.EUM, 2 Şb, 7–21, Nedjmi (Djanik governor) to Ministry of Interior, 1 May 1915; DH.EUM, 2 Şb, 7–21, Sabit (Harput governor) to the Ministry of Interior, 1 May 1915. On 26 April 1915, Djemal requested information concerning the Armenian Benevolent Union. The Ministry of War forwarded the request to the Ministry of Interior. On 29 April 1915, Ismail Djanbolat replied that the AGBU was only in appearance a philanthropic association. In reality it was, like any Armenian organization, a cover for the activities of militants. Djemal was advised accordingly the following day. ABEF 1, pp 463–464, Djemal to GHQ, 26 April 21915, telegram 3519; ABEF 1, GHQ to EUM, 27 April 1915; ABEF 1, Ismail Djanbolat to GHQ, 2nd Div, 29 April 1915, EUM 3096, ABEF 1, GHQ to 4th Army command, 30 April 1915, telegram. A second reply to the same effect was forwarded through military channels. SvI, p 124, DH.ŞFR, 52–93, Talaat to Djemal, 24 April 1915, EUM Spec 14. DH.ŞFR, 52–112, Minister to Adana, Aleppo provinces, Marash district, 25 April 1915, EUM, secret. DH.ŞFR, 52–203, Minister to Marash district, 3 May 1915, EUM Spec 11; DH.ŞFR, 52–253, Minister to Marash district, 6 May 1915, EUM Spec 4060. DH.ŞFR, 470–65, Mumtaz to Ministry of Interior, Marash, 7 May 1915, No 2872, urgent. SvI, pp 133–134, DH.ŞFR, 52-286, Talaat to Marash district, 9 May 1915, EUM Spec 14. SvI, p 130, DH.ŞFR, 52–235, Minister to Konia Province, 5 May 1915, EUM Spec 21. DH.ŞFR, 52–291, Talaat to 4th Army command, 9 May 1915, EUM Spec 18. DH.ŞFR, 52–292, Minister to Konia province, 9 May 1915 EUM Spec 22. DH.ŞFR, 475–17, Azmi to Ministry of Interior, Burdur, 11 June 1915, No 2104/32. The telegram was a reply to an inquiry by Talaat, SvI, p 163, DH.ŞFR, 53–312, Talaat to Konia province, 10 June 1915, EUM Spec 32. On 29 May 1915, in admission that it hopes for Armenian self-financing of the deportations had failed, the Ministry of Interior instructed Konia province to use funds earmarked for the settlement of immigrants for the provisioning of Armenian deportees. SvI, p 154, DH.ŞFR, 53–152, Ali Münif to Konia province, 29 May 1915, IAMM 30. DH.ŞFR, 469–117, Djelal to Ministry of Interior, Aleppo, Received 6 May 1915, No 11119. DH.ŞFR, 52–267, Minister to Aleppo province, 8 May 1915, EUM Spec 4082, secret. DH.ŞFR, 470–74, Djelal to Ministry of Interior, Aleppo, 9 May 1915, No 12294, personally decode. DH.ŞFR, 52–335, Minister to Aleppo province, 12 May 1915, EUM Spec 4138. DH.ŞFR, 471–112, Djelal to Ministry of Interior, Aleppo, 19 May 1915, No 15229/147. RG 59, 867.4016/72, Jackson to Morgenthau, Aleppo, 12 May 1915, No 276, in Sarafian, Records, p 41. US missionaries gathered data on outrages committed against the deportees from Zeitun. Many women were raped. Merrill wrote: ‘I have not heard of a single instance of attempted defiance of the orders for deportation in all the Zeitoun region. A few soldiers are sufficient to escort a large company of refugees. On the contrary, women and children have marched for hours bare foot, babies on their mother's backs have been crushed to death through the carelessness of the soldiers, children have been thrown into the Jihon river by their parents …’ RG 59, 867.4016/80, ‘J.E. Merril on the Zeitoun-Marash Situation’, Aintab, 14 June 1915, enclosure in Morgenthau to Secretary of State, Constantinople, 26 June 1915, Sarafian, Records, p 68. DH.ŞFR, 469–124, Djemal to Ministry of Interior, Jerusalem (HQ), 5 May 1915, No 3679/1032. DH.ŞFR, 470–21, Djemal to Ministry of Interior, Jerusalem (HQ), 6 May 1915, No 3421/1071. DH.ŞFR, 53–21, Ali Munif to Marash district, 17 May 1915, IAMM 16. DH.ŞFR, 471–53, Djemal to Talaat, Jerusalem (HQ), 17 May 1915, No 4919/39, very secret; DH.ŞFR, 471–54, Djemal to Talaat, Jerusalem (HQ), 17 May 1915, No 2855/1520. DH.ŞFR, 471–133, Djelal to Ministry of Interior, Aleppo, 20 May 1915, No 15513. DH.ŞFR, 472–31, Djemal to Ministry of Interior, Jerusalem (HQ), 27 May 1915, No 5412/1837. See also SvI, p 150, DH.EUM, 2 Şb, 7–25, Djemal Pasha to Ministry of Interior, Jerusalem, 23 May 1915, telegram 1837. DH.ŞFR, 53–94, Ismail to 4th Army command, 23 May 1915 EUM. For the order to the provinces, see DH.ŞFR, 53–91, Ismail to Mosul province, Urfa, Zor districts, 23 May 1915, EUM; DH.ŞFR, 53–92, Ismail to Adana, Aleppo provinces, Marash district, 23 May 1915, EUM. SvI, p. 153, DH.ŞFR, 53–113, Ali Munif to Adana, Aleppo, Erzerum, Van, Bitlis provinces, 25 May 1915, IAMM. For the text of the law, see Hikmet Özdemir and Yusuf Sarınay (eds), Türk–Ermeni İhtilafı. Belgeler. Turkish–Armenian Conflict. Documents (Ankara: Türk Büyük Meclisi Kültür, Sanat ve Yayın Kurulu Yayınları, 2007), pp 64–65. The decision of the cabinet on the law was passed after its promulgation. Özdemir and Sarınay, İhtilafı, pp 52–61, 72–76. Hilmar Kaiser, ‘Armenian property, Ottoman law, and nationality policies during the Armenian genocide, 1915–1916’, in Olaf Farschild, Manfred Kropp and Stephan Dähne (eds), The First Word War as Remembered in the Countries of the Eastern Mediterranean (Würzburg: Ergon Verlag, 2006), pp 54–58; Hilmar Kaiser, ‘A scene from the inferno.’ The Armenians of Erzerum and the genocide, 1915–1916', in Hans-Lukas Kieser and Dominik Schaller (eds), Der Völkermord an den Armeniern und die Shoah/The Armenian Genocide and the Shoah (Zürich: Chronos, 2002), pp 152–156. AA-PA, Konstantinopel 168, J. No 3215, Rössler to Wangenheim, Aleppo, 26 May 1915, telegram. Marginal note by Mordtmann, 29 May 1915. AA-PA, Konstantinopel 169, J. No 3378, Rössler to Embassy, 3 June 1915, telegram. Jackson had secured some more details on the number of Armenians scattered around Aleppo: ‘I'm reliably informed that there at present more than 2,600 of such people in Aleppo, and know that more than that number have been taken out from here and scattered in various directions.’ RG 59, 867.4016/77, Jackson to Morgenthau, Aleppo, 5 June 1915, No 289, in Sarafian, Records, p 57. AA-PA, Konstantinopel 169, J. No 3451, Rössler to Embassy, 6 June 1915, telegram. AA-PA, Konstantinopel 169, J. No zu 3451, Wangenheim to Rössler, Pera, 7 June 1915, telegram. Marginal note by Mordtmann, 7 June 1915. AA-PA, Konstantinopel 169, J. No 3528, Rössler to Embassy, Aleppo, 9 June 1915, telegram. Marginal note Mordtmann, 9 June 1915. AA-PA, Konsulat Aleppo, Paket 1, Vol 1, J. No 1229, Rössler to Embassy, 12 June 1915, telegram 4. Marginal note Rössler. RG 59, 867.4016/77, Jackson to Morgenthau, Aleppo, 5 June 1915, No 289, in Sarafian, Records, p 57. AA-PA, Türkei 183/38, A 27584, Djemal Pasha to Fahri Pasha, 7 June 1915, enclosure 3 in Oppenheim to Bethmann Hollweg, Damascus, 29 August 1915. DH.ŞFR, 474–108, Djemal to Talaat, Jerusalem, 8 June 1915, No 6077/2691. DH.ŞFR, 54–15, Ali Munif to Adana, Aleppo, Erzerum, Bitlis, Van, Diarbekir provinces, Marash districts, 14 June 1915, IAMM 31, 36, 24, 22, 26, 36, 22. DH.ŞFR, 475–88, Djelal to Ministry of Interior, 15 June 1915, No. 1499/121. SvI, p 168, DH.ŞFR, 54–54, Minister of Interior to Aleppo province, 17 June 1915, EUM Spec 38. DH.ŞFR, 476–39, Djelal to Ministry of Interior, Aleppo, 19 June 1915, No 23476. AA-PA, Türkei 183/38, A 27584, Djemal Pasha to Fahri Pasha, 7 June 1915, enclosure 3 in Oppenheim to Bethmann Hollweg, Damascus, 29 August 1915; AA-PA, Türkei 183/38, A 27584, Djemal Pasha to Djelal Bey, 27 June 1915, enclosure 3 in Oppenheim to Bethmann Hollweg, Damascus, 29 August 1915, AA-PA, Konstantinopel 169, J. No 3502, Sahag II to Djemal Pasha, 15 May 1915 enclosure 3 in Sahag II to Govenor, Adana, 3 May 1915 enclosure in Sahag II to Wangenheim, Adana, 2 June 1915 enclosure in Büge to Wangenheim, Adana, 3 June 1915, No 516. AA-PA, Konstantinopel 169, J. No 3502, Sahag II to Wangenheim, Adana, 2 June 1915, enclosure in Büge to Wangenheim, Adana, 3 June 1915, No 516. One Turkish Pound equalled 100 Kurush. DH.ŞFR, 477–104, Djemal to Talaat, Aleppo, 28 June 1915, No 9309/559. Already on 5 June 1915, Consul Jackson had reported on a ‘perfect reign of terror’ existing in Diarbekir province, showing that information about these atrocities had spread through the city. RG 59, 867.4016/77, Jackson to Morgenthau, Aleppo, 5 June 1915, No 289, in Sarafian, Records, p 58. For an overview on Diarbekir province, see Üngör, Reign, pp 39–77. SvI, pp 185–186, DH.ŞFR, 54–270/1, Ali Munif to Djemal Pasha, 3 July 1915, IAMM 46. Erden, Hâtıraları, p 121. Türkei 183/38, A 23991, Rössler to Bethmann Hollweg, Aleppo, 27 July 1915, K. No 81, B. No 1645, confidential. AA-PA, Konsulat Aleppo, Paket 1, Vol 1/2, No 1366, Rössler to Embassy, Aleppo, 28 June 1915, telegram 18. AA-PA, Konstantinopel 169, J. No 4147, Rössler to Embassy, Aleppo, 8 July 1915, telegram 37. AA-PA, Türkei 183/37, A 23232, Rössler to Bethmann Hollweg, Aleppo, 17 July 1915, K. No 79, B. No 1553; Türkei 183/38, A 23991, Rössler to Bethmann Hollweg, Aleppo, 27 July 1915, K. No 81, B. No 1645, confidential. Djemal personally informed Oppenheim to this effect in August 1915. AA-PA Türkei, 183/38, A 27584, Oppenheim to Bethmann Hollweg, Damascus, 29 August 1915. [Djemal Pasha], ‘Declaration for the provinces’, (end of June 1915), enclosure 4 in AA-PA Türkei, 183/38, A 27584, Oppenheim to Bethmann Hollweg, Damascus, 29 August 1915. DH.ŞFR, 479–21, Djemal to Talaat, Aleppo (HQ), 7 July 1915, No 10435/892. DH.ŞFR, 487–11, Djemal to Talaat, Jerusalem (HQ), 3 September 1915, No 15078/3257, personally decoded. AA-PA, Konsulat Aleppo, Paket 1, Vol 1, J. No 1311, Rössler to Embassy, Aleppo, 21 June 1915, telegram 9. DH.İdare-i Umumiyye, E/8-86, CUP Aleppo to Talaat, Aleppo, n. d., telegram 4895. Talaat received the telegram on 21 April 1915. DH.ŞFR, 54–94, Talaat to Mazhar, 22 June 1915. DH.ŞFR, 477–48, Djemal to Talaat, Aleppo (HQ), 26 June 1915, No 905/475, personally for the Minister. DH.ŞFR, 476–117, Mazhar to Ministry of Interior, Angora, 22 June 1915, No 19685/68, for the Minister only. DH.ŞFR, 477–86, Djemal to Talaat, Aleppo (HQ), 28 June 1915, No 9289/5525. Meclis-i Vükelâ Mazbataları, 241–12, 30 June 1915, No 13. AA-PA, Konsulat Aleppo, Paket 1, Vol 1, J. No 1437, Rössler to Embassy, Aleppo, 5 July 1915, telegram 33. SvI, p 182, DH.ŞFR, 54–261, Talaat to Syria, Aleppo, Mosul provinces, Zor district, 1 July 1915, EUM. SvI, p 190, DH.ŞFR, 54–315, Ali Munif to Adana, Erzerum, Bitlis, Aleppo, Diarbekir, Syria, Trebizond, Harput, Mosul provinces, Zor, Marash, Djanik, Cesarea, Ismid districts, Adana and Aleppo Abandoned Property Commissions, 5 July 1915, IAMM Gen 361; DH.Umur-ı Mahalliye ve Vilayat Müdüriyeti, 131–87, 5 July 1915, IAMM. DH.ŞFR, 54-308, Ali Munif to Zor District, 5 July 1915, IAMM 24. SvI, pp 194–195, DH.ŞFR, 54–412, Ali Munif to Adana, Erzerum, Bitlis, Aleppo, Diarbekir, Sivas, Harput provinces, Marash, Ismid, Djanik, Cesarea districts, 12 July 1915, IAMM Gen 377. SvI, p 197, DH.ŞFR, 54–413, Ali Munif to Adana, Erzerum, Bitlis, Aleppo, Diarbekir, Sivas, Harput provinces, Urfa, Cesarea, Djanik, Ismid districts, 12 July 1915, IAMM Gen 376. DH.ŞFR, 54–411, Ali Munif to Adana, Aleppo, Diarbekir, Erzerum, Bitlis,Van, Trebizond, Sivas, Bursa, Adrianopel, Mosul provinces, Ismid, Djanik, Cesarea, Marash, Zor, Urfa districts, 12 July 1915, IAMM 378. The inquiry was a follow-up to an earlier one. At that instance, the Ministry inquired whether there were suitable buildings in the provinces for the establishment of orphanages and how many Armenian children under the age of ten existed. SvI, p 175, DH.ŞFR, 54–150, Minister of Education to Diarbekir, Aleppo, Trebizond, Erzerum, Sivas, Bitlis, Harput, Van provinces, Marash district, 26 June 1915, Spec Dept, Spec 327, Gen 194195. Akçam views Ali Munif's telegram as evidence that the government had its policies thought through at an earlier time. The document shows, however, that the central authorities lacked even basic information like the availability of suitable buildings. Thus the telegram points to the absence rather than the existence of prior planning. Akçam, Hallolunmuştur, p 204. DH.ŞFR, 54–426, Talaat to Aleppo-Marash Abandoned Property Commission, 14 July 1915, IAMM 6. DH.ŞFR, 480–86, Bekir Sami to Ministry of Interior, Aleppo, 18 July 1915, No 31059/284, personally for the Minister. DH.ŞFR, 480–53, Shukru to Ministry of Interior, Aintab, 18 [?] July 1915, No 7386. DH.ŞFR, 481–17, Djemal to Ministry of Interior, Ain Sofar (HQ), 24 July 1915, No 19282/1626. DH.ŞFR, 54/A–113, Minister to 4th Army command, 26 July 1915, EUM 4796. DH.ŞFR, 54/A–71, Minister to Aleppo province, 22 July 1915, EUM. DH.ŞFR, 480–146, Bekir Sami to Ministry of Interior, Aleppo, 24 July 1915, No 35359. AA-PA, Türkei 183/55, zu A 49683, Rössler to Hohenlohe-Langenburg, Aleppo, 31 July 1915, J. No 4637, B. No 1665. AA-PA, Türkei 183/37, A 23232, Rössler to Bethmann Hollweg, Aleppo, 17 July 1915, K. No 79, B. No 1553. DH.ŞFR, 54/A–91, Talaat to Zor district, 24 July 1915, EUM Spec 28; DH.ŞFR, 54/A–153, Talaat to Aleppo province, 28 July 1915, EUM. DH.ŞFR, 481–37, Bekir Sami to Ministry of Interior, Aleppo, 26 July 1915, No 35976/304. DH.ŞFR, 54/A–100, Minister to Erzerum, Adana, Bitlis, Aleppo, Diarbekir, Sivas, Trebizond, Harput, Van provinces, Urfa, Djanik, Marash districts, 24 July 1915, EUM Gen 400. DH.ŞFR, 481–76, Bekir Sami to Ministry of Interior, Aleppo, 28 July 1915, No 36524/306. DH.ŞFR, 481–88, Bekir Sami to Ministry of Interior, Aleppo, 29 July 1915, No 36760. DH.ŞFR, 482–36, Bekir Sami to Ministry of Interior, Aleppo, 2 August 1915, No 37905. RG 59, 867.4016/126, Jackson to Morgenthau, Aleppo, 3 August 1915, No 333 copy, in Sarafian, Records, pp 168–169. Jackson had also spoken with Zor governor Suad bey who was in Aleppo at the time. The official had told him that there ‘are 15,000 Armenian refugees in that city. Children are frequently sold to prevent starvation as the Government furnishes practically no subsistence.’ Sarafian, Records, p 169. In 1918, Jackson described his own observations: ‘… some of them personally came to the Consulate and exhibited their bodies to me, burned to the color of a green olive, the skin peeling off in great blotches, and many of them carrying gashes on the head and wounds on the body as a result of the terrible beatings inflicted by the Kurds.’ RG 59, 867.4016/373, Jackson to Secretary of State, Washington, 4 March 1918, in Sarafian, Records, p 587. SvI, pp 208–209, DH.