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Religious Writing by Orthodox Jewish Women: Creating a Theology

2012; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 27; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/13537903.2012.722298

1469-9419

Julia Schwartzmann,

Theology and Canon Law Studies

Abstract Since the middle of the 1990s, a considerable number of books and articles have been published by traditional Orthodox and ultra-Orthodox Jewish women. This article explores the ideas and rhetorical strategies of some of these books and articles as representative of an established religious genre and as signs of an authentic search for new definitions of Orthodox femininity. The quest for traditional Orthodox/ultra-Orthodox femininity seems to proceed in two general directions. The first follows the lines of religious gender essentialism, while the second disrupts the idyllic stability associated with traditional concepts of complementary gender roles. The latter transforms Judaism's static model of inter-gender relations into a dynamic process which is to culminate in the establishment of gender equality in the messianic age. The essentialist approach, which presents spirituality as women's innate gift, seems to offer the perfect strategy for dealing with the theological and practical problems faced by Orthodox Jewish women in their own communities. Nevertheless, the popularity of the evolutionary approach indicates the shortcomings of traditional essentialism: the longing for equality and the perception of injustice remain alive under the surface, despite the apparent complacency of most Orthodox women. Acknowledgement I am grateful to especially one of the anonymous referees of the Journal of Contemporary Religion for his/her constructive and insightful comments and suggestions which helped to improve this article. Notes 1. While it is difficult or even unfair to pigeon-hole someone's religious commitment, most of the authors discussed here tend toward ultra-Orthodoxy. This is a very general statement, since the term 'ultra-Orthodoxy' denotes a broad spectrum of views and trends. Throughout this article I call the women writers 'traditional Orthodox/ultra-Orthodox' since they resemble each other not so much in their religious affiliations as in their non-subversive yet creative and challenging analyses of traditional Judaism. 2. To mention just some books: Heller; Kornbluth and Kornbluth; Pavlov; Slonim, Immersion, Bread; Heshelis; Schneider, Kabbalistic; Wiskind and Handelman; Smiles. 3. The term 'theology' has acquired various connotations, but its stricter religious sense defines it as "disciplined and responsible reflection and argument on the beliefs and traditions of a faith considered from within … the activity of a believer carried on behalf of and with responsibility to the community of believers" (Jenkins 344). 4. This principle was established by Maimonides (1134–1205), the most influential codifier of Jewish Law (Laws of the Kings 238–42). 5. Culturally, the English-speaking Ultra-Orthodox community in Israel is very different from the local one. The reasons for this are numerous. Firstly, one has to take into account their respective cultural backgrounds. While most American ultra-Orthodox Jews are at least partially exposed to the Western cultural tradition, the worldview of native Israeli ultra-Orthodox Jews is rooted in either the segregated Ashkenazi societies of pre-WWII Eastern Europe or North Africa's more open Jewries which had incorporated elements of North African popular culture. Secondly, while ultra-Orthodox and Modern Orthodox Jews in the US are well aware of their status as a religious minority which must adjust to the wider society, Israeli ultra-Orthodox Jews and growing parts of the religious Zionist community strive to create a religious society which is untainted by alien cultures. Consequently, American ultra-Orthodox Jewry is more open to general education and culture, while their Israeli counterparts vehemently reject them (Don-Yihiya; Caplan 242–3). 6. The Israeli feminist Orthodox scene is, by contrast, burgeoning; see e.g. www.kolech.com, access date: 2 September 2012. 7. One of the most popular sites is www.ashira.co.il (access date: 2 September 2012). One is struck by the differences between this site and those catering for English-speaking traditional Orthodox/ultra-Orthodox Jews, such as www.aish.com (access date: 2 September 2012) or www.naaleh.com (access date: 2 September 2012) or even the women's section on the Habad site of www.chabad.org ('The Jewish Woman', access date: 2 September 2012). It is difficult to say why Israeli ultra-Orthodox women turn to cyber media rather than to books for their religious empowerment. Most of the on-line lectures were originally delivered to live audiences. For many women, attending the lectures offers a welcome break from their daily routine. Take, for example, the currently most popular lecturer Rabbanit Yamima Mizrahi. A former lawyer and the mother of eleven children, Mizrahi has become an iconic figure thanks to her elegant appearance, her petulant mind, and her wonderful sense of humor. Her lectures attract large crowds of women from large middle- to low-income families. For them, Mizrahi's lectures are the highlight of the week, offering both entertainment and inspiration. If Mizrahi gave up public speaking and instead wrote wonderfully funny and inspiring books, would they attract the same audience? The answer seems obvious. 8. Israeli speakers may be educated, but they do not refer to general culture in their lectures, mainly because of resentment toward and apprehension of anything that is not Jewish (Israeli culture is also considered to be alien). English-speaking authors and lecturers seem to be more open-minded. Thus, for example, Rebbetzin Tziporah Heller (discussed below) does not hesitate to take on American feminists in her book. In one of her video lectures (although ultra-Orthodox, Heller does not shy away from appearing on the computer screen), she classifies Ernest Hemingway as 'out-fashioned', a comment which points to her acquaintance with current American literary trends. 9. Most of the books contain haskamot (recommendations or, literally, 'agreements') penned by rabbinic authorities (see Note 11). This is all the attention the books get from the male intellectual élite. 10. This is the Hebrew term for secular women who returned to Judaism. 11. This very conspicuous new trend concerns the convention of the haskamot (agreements). In ultra-Orthodox circles, there is the tradition of printing the haskamot of prominent rabbis on the opening pages of new religious books. They thus function as a stamp of approval by religious authorities. Torah Tapestries, the latest book by the ultra-Orthodox writer Shirah Smiles, opens with three haskamot, two of them written by prominent women: Tziporah Heller and Chani Juravel. This very significant development may announce the female ultra-Orthodox community's new ability to produce its own religious authorities. 12. Rebbetzin Heller is a long-standing teacher at Neve Yerushalaim College in Jerusalem, which is one of the oldest institutions for ba'alot teshuva (newly religious women) in Israel. With an ultra-Orthodox orientation and known for its emphasis on spirituality, it provides Jewish education to women of varying backgrounds. Heller is a sought-after lecturer in the US and a prolific writer. She recently joined the Na'aleh web site (www.naaleh.com, access date: 2 September 2012), where she gives lectures and advice to an English-speaking audience. 13. The only feminist Heller mentions (9) is C. Paglia who is highly controversial, even among feminists. 14. One of Davidman's respondents, a ba'alat teshuva, says of her experience with Jewish feminists that they looked as if "they had some chip on their shoulder" (129). 15. Ross (36) suggests that the Maharal of Prague (Judah Loew ben Bezalel, 1525–1609) invented this idea. In modern times, it has been associated with Rabbi Abraham Yitzchak Kook (1865–1935), who bases his theory of the distinctiveness of the Jewish family upon it (Kook 71–2; Rosenak 252). 16. Minyan is the quorum of ten men required for public prayer service. 17. Heller's positive interpretation of religious practices does not signify a change in the general attitude toward women within ultra-Orthodoxy. While taking a train on the eve of the Sabbath, when the Shelah section of the Torah (Numbers) is read, I was presented with a booklet which included the Lubavitcher Rebbe's writings on this passage. They opened with a reminder that the commandment to separate the dough was given in reaction to Eve bringing death to the world (Likutei Sichot, Shlach, Num 15:20, 1956). The latter is based on the famous midrash that counts, in addition to separating the dough, two other feminine duties: the commandment of menstrual purity and lighting candles on the eve of the Sabbath. The three commandments constitute the scope of the religious woman's duties, as reminders of the guilt she bears regarding humanity (Bereishit Rabba 13:8). 18. It is interesting to compare this with the dynamics of the traditional attitude toward menstrual impurity (Steinberg). 19. Rebbetzin Holly Pavlov is the head of Shearim College in Jerusalem, which specializes in teaching Judaism to college-educated women who want to deepen their knowledge of Judaism. The general orientation of the college is ultra-Orthodox. 20. Silence is traditionally associated with Rachel (see e.g. Midrash Tanhuma, Vayeze 6). 21. Regarding Miriam's Well, see also Rashi (Rabbi Shlomo Yitzhaki 1040–1105) and Kli Yakar (Rabbi Shlomo Efraim of Luntchitz 1550–1619) on Num 20:1–3. (See also Note 30.) 22. Pavlov's imagery of well digging as a means to achieve spirituality is based on the words of Sefat Emet (R. Yehudah Leib Alter 1847–1905) (Alter 104–06). 23. Although religious classifications have become unfashionable, hallachically speaking, all these authors belong to strict Orthodoxy, which is evident in their dress: long sleeves, stockings, and wigs. Some of them were born Orthodox Jews, others are ba'alot tshuva. 24. While Susan Handelman, a Lubavitcher, is very enthusiastic about this development, Bonnie Morris, who has no emotional ties to Habad, is rather skeptical that any change has occurred in the status of Lubavitcher women; she claims that they "must use their limited opportunities as scholars to uphold the traditional male interpretation of female status in Judaism" (54). 25. Rivkah Slonim is the director of education at the Habad Center for Jewish Student Life at Binghamton University, NY. 26. The theme of (im)purity as reflecting cosmic cycles of birth and death was originally explored by Rachel Adler ("Tumah"; see also Steinberg 21–3). 27. For example, Handelman ("Women", "Tumah") defends the ancient laws of purity while praising changes in the sphere of learning. 28. Myers claims (3) that the hope for reinstating Jewish women in their original status is linked in women's writings with the idea that Zionism is a harbinger of the messianic age. However, most of the writers cited here are highly critical of both the State of Israel and the secular nature of Zionism. 29. An example of this paradigm is the midrash of 'The Diminished Moon' (B Hullin 60b; Zohar, Sifra DeTsniuta, Ch. 1), which many of the Orthodox women authors interpret as a divine promise to restore gender equality in the Days of the Messiah. It reads: "R. Simeon b. Pazzi pointed out a contradiction [between verses]. One verse says: And God made the two great lights, and immediately the verse continues: the greater light … and the lesser light. The moon said unto the Holy One, blessed be He, 'Sovereign of the Universe! Is it possible for two kings to wear one crown?' He answered: 'Go then and make thyself smaller.' 'Sovereign of the Universe!', cried the moon, 'Because I have suggested that which is proper must I then make myself smaller?' He replied: 'Go and thou wilt rule by day and by night.' 'But what is the value of this?', cried the moon. 'Of what use is a lamp in broad daylight?' He replied: 'Go. Israel shall reckon by thee the days and the years.' 'But it is impossible', said the moon, 'to do without the sun for the reckoning of the seasons, as it is written: And let them be for signs, and for seasons, and for days and years.' 'Go. The righteous shall be named after thee as we find, Jacob the Small, Samuel the Small, David the Small.' On seeing that it would not be consoled the Holy One, blessed be He, said: 'Bring an atonement for Me for making the moon smaller.'" (B. Hullin 60b) 30. Kli Yakar is a popular biblical commentary by Rabbi Shlomo Efraim of Luntchitz (1550–1619). 31. Heshelis mentions another source in support of this 'feminist' interpretation of the verse; it appears in Ma'or Vashemesh, a Hassidic commentary on the Torah by R. Kalonymus Kalman Halevi Epstein (1751–1823). The verse from Jeremiah became a kind of a motto for Orthodox writers who are not satisfied with the present situation of women (Handelman, "Women"). 32. It appears that the Gaon of Vilna's (Rabbi Elijah ben Shlomo Zalman Kramer, 1720–1797) messianic world vision was indeed akin to historicism (Shuchat 166–261). 33. In some ways this results from Habad's policy of reaching out to secular Jews as potential members of the community. This policy has attracted spirituality seekers who are not particularly keen on the legalistic learning of traditional Judaism. 34. Schneider resides in Jerusalem. She is a ba'alat teshuva with a degree in biology, which lends a scientific twist to her perspective on the Kabbalah. Additional information about her teaching activities are available on her web site: www.astillsmallvoice.org, access date 2 September 2012. 35. Among the people whom Schneider thanks in her opening remarks is her teacher R. Yitzchak Ginsburgh, a prominent figure in Israel's ultra-Orthodox milieu. This is indicative of the change that has taken place within today's Orthodoxy; in the recent past, no ultra-Orthodox rabbi would dare teach Kabbalah to women. 36. See e.g. Schneider's treatment of 'The Diminished Moon' midrash (Kabbalistic 39–44, 59–60). 37. See note 29. 38. Rabbi Shlomo Elyashev (1841–1926), the author of Leshem Shevo VeAchlamah, is considered to be one of the greatest Kabbalistic authorities of his time. 39. Rabbi Moshe Haim Louzzatto, known as 'Ramhal' (1707–1747), was one of the outstanding minds of his time. A Kabbalist, playwright, and religious writer, he developed a hermeneutic that rejected the Kabbalah's literal meaning (Rubin). 40. Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi (1745–1812) was the founder of Habad. 41. For some reason, religious feminists have come to view Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi as a visionary of women's future equality. It seems that this reputation is based on a rather tendentious reading of his purely kabbalistic commentaries which have nothing to do with real women. See e.g. an often quoted passage from his Likutei Torah, VaYikra, Tsav portion 8b-9b.