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UN Security Council: playing a role in the international climate change regime?

2013; Routledge; Volume: 25; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/14781158.2013.787058

1478-1166

Stephanie Cousins,

Global Energy Security and Policy

Abstract In the context of a weakly enforced Kyoto Protocol, sluggish UN climate change negotiations and a closing window of opportunity to prevent the more cataclysmic scenarios of climate change, calls for the UN Security Council to play a role in international climate governance are becoming louder. The Security Council's political clout and wide enforcement powers make it a seemingly ideal antidote to the current negotiation inertia. But how realistic is it for the Security Council to play a role in curbing climate change? This paper examines the ambition and enforcement limitations of the current UN legal regime for climate change and analyses whether the Security Council could help fill the gaps. It argues that climate change can legitimately be seen as a security issue, and that it is legally feasible for the Security Council to act on it, even using its full range of powers. However, politically there are just a few options worth exploring at this stage. These include: monitoring and early warning of climate-related security threats; and helping to resolve disputes peacefully between blocks of states with regards to mitigation and adaptation ambition. Keywords: environmenthuman securityinternational lawinternational relationssecuritysovereignty Notes 1 Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are defined as 'those gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic, that absorb and re-emit infrared radiation'. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), opened for signature June 4, 1992, 1771 UNTS 107 (entered into force on March 21, 1994), art. 1[5]. 2 Ibid., art. 2. 3 Ibid., art. 4[1][a]. 4 Ibid., art. 4[1][b]. 5 Ibid., art. 4[1][c]. 6 Ibid., art. 4[1][d]. 7 Ibid., art. 4[1][f]. 8 Ibid., art. 4[1][g]. 9 Ibid., art. 4[1][i]. 10 Ibid., art. 4[1][j]. 13 Ibid., art. 4[2](a). 11 The principle of common but differentiated responsibility (CBDR) was first clearly enunciated as a principle of international environmental law in the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development: In view of the different contributions to global environmental degradation, States have common but differentiated responsibilities. The developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the international pursuit of sustainable development in view of the pressures their societies place on the global environment and of the technologies and financial resources they command. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (Rio Declaration), UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26 (vol. I)/31 ILM 874 (June 14, 1992), Principle 7. 12 UNFCCC, Annex I. 14 Joyeeta Gupta, 'A History of International Climate Change Policy', Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews – Climate Change 636, no. 1 (2010): 639. 15 Michael Zammit Cutajar, 'Reflections on the Kyoto Protocol – Looking Back to See Ahead', International Review for Environmental Strategies 5, no. 1 (2004): 61. 16 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (Kyoto Protocol), opened for signature December 11, 1997, 2303 UNTS 162 (entered into force February 16, 2005), art. 3[1]. 17 Michael Faure, Joyeeta Gupta and Andries Nentjes, 'Key Instrumental and Institutional Design Issues in Climate Change Policy', in Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol: The Role of Institutions and Instruments to Control Global Change, ed. Michael Faure, Joyeeta Gupta and Andries Nentjes (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2003), 3. 18 'Kyoto Protocol Comes into Force', BBC News (London), February 16, 2005. 19 Kyoto Protocol, art. 25[1]. 20 Jutta Brunnée, Meinhard Doelle and Lavanya Rajamani, eds., Promoting Compliance in an Evolving Climate Regime (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 4. 21 Glen P. Peters et al., 'The Challenge to Keep Global Warming Below 2 °C', Nature Climate Change 3 (January 2013): 4. 22 Jacob Werksman, 'Introduction', in Greening International Institutions, ed. Jacob Werksman (London: Earthscan, 1996), xvi. 23 UNFCCC, art. 13. 24 Ibid., art. 14. 25 Jon Hovi, Camilla Bretteville Froyn and Guri Bang, 'Introduction and Main Findings', in Implementing the Climate Regime: International Compliance, ed. Olav Schram Stokke, Jon Hovi and Geir Ulfstein (London: Earthscan, 2005), 1. 26 Geir Ulfstein and Jacob Werksman, 'The Kyoto Compliance System: Towards Hard Enforcement', in Implementing the Climate Regime: International Compliance, 59. For more detailed analysis of soft and hard enforcement mechanisms of Kyoto Protocol see generally S. Karlsson-Vinkhuyzen and A. Vihma, 'Comparing the Legitimacy and Effectiveness of Global Hard and Soft Law: An Analytical Framework', Regulation & Governance 3 (2009): 400. 27 Report of the Conference of the Parties on its Seventh Session held in Marrakesh, 29 October to 10 November 2001 (Marrakesh Accords), Dec 24/CP.7, UNFCCC, FCCC/CP/2001/13/Add.3 (January 21, 2002), 65[I]. 28 Ibid., 67[IV]. The 'enforcement branch' applies consequences for non-compliance with art. 3[1], 5[1][2], 7[1][4] and eligibility requirements in arts. [6], [7] and [12]. Ibid., 67[V][4]. 29 Ulfstein and Werksman, 'The Kyoto Compliance System', 52. 30 Jing Cao, 'Beyond Copenhagen: Reconciling International Fairness, Economic Development, and Climate Protection' (Discussion Paper 2010-44, Harvard Project on International Climate Agreements, Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Harvard Kennedy School, October 2010), 21. For a more detailed outline of the Kyoto compliance mechanism see also Tullio Treves et al., eds., Non-Compliance Procedures and Mechanisms and the Effectiveness of International Environmental Agreements (The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press, 2009), 63. 31 Meinhard Doelle, 'Early Experience with the Kyoto Compliance System: Possible Lessons for MEA Compliance System Design', Climate Law 1 (2010): 255. 32 See e.g. Ulrich Beyerlin, Peter-Tobias Stoll and Rüdiger Wolfrum, 'Conclusions Drawn from the Conference on Ensuring Compliance with MEAs', in Ensuring Compliance with Multilateral Environmental Agreements: Academic Analysis and Views from Practice, ed. Peter-Tobias Stoll, Ulrich Beyerlin and Rüdiger Wolfrum (Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, 2006). 33 Kyoto Protocol, art. 18. See also Hermann E. Ott, Climate Policy After the Marrakesh Accords: From Legislation to Implementation, Yearbook of International Environmental Law (London: Oxford University Press, 2002). 34 Jon Hovi, Camilla Bretteville Froyn and Guri Bang, 'Enforcing the Kyoto Protocol: Can Punitive Consequences Restore Compliance?' (paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Studies Association, Honolulu, Hawaii, February 8, 2005), 1. 35 Doelle, 'Early Experience with the Kyoto Compliance System', 257. 36 Hovi et al., 'Enforcing the Kyoto Protocol', 2; Cao, 'Beyond Copenhagen', 21. 37 Scott Barrett, 'Climate Treaties and the Imperative of Enforcement', Oxford Review of Economic Policy 24 no. 2 (2008): 246. 38 Ian Austen, 'Canada Announces Exit From Kyoto Climate Treaty', New York Times, December 12, 2011 http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/13/science/earth/canada-leaving-kyoto-protocol-on-climate-change.html (accessed December 12, 2012). 39 Diarmuid Torney and Noriko Fujiwara, 'National Commitments, Compliance and the Future of the Kyoto Protocol' (Centre for European Policy Studies, Policy Brief No. 226, November 2010), 5. 40 Scott Barrett, 'A Portfolio System of Climate Treaties' (Discussion Paper 08-13, Harvard Project on International Climate Agreements, Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Harvard Kennedy School, October 2008), 4. 41 Daniel Bodansky, 'W[h]ither the Kyoto Protocol? Durban and Beyond' (Harvard Project on Climate Agreements, Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Harvard Kennedy School, August 2011), 12. 42 UNFCCC, art. 2. 43 European Commission, Climate Action: Doha Climate Change Conference (COP 18/CMP 8), http://ec.europa.eu/clima/events/0062/index_en.htm (accessed October 20, 2012). 44 Copenhagen Accord, UNFCCC, Draft decision -/CMP.5, 5th sess, Agenda Item 15, UN Doc. FCCC/KP/CMP/2009/L.9 (December 18, 2009). Under the Copenhagen Accord Annex I countries make voluntary commitments to emissions reduction targets and developing countries (non-Annex I parties) commit to undertake mitigation actions. See Brunnée et al., Promoting Compliance in an Evolving Climate Regime, 6. 45 Ibid., 6–7. 46 Decision 1/CP.16, 'The Cancun Agreements: Outcome of the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention' (Cancun Agreements (LCA)) FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1 (March 15, 2011); Decision 1/CMP.6. 47 Bodansky, 'W[h]ither the Kyoto Protocol?', 12. 48 Copenhagen Accord, 1[1]. 49 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 'Bridging the Emissions Gap: A UNEP Synthesis Report' (New York: UNEP, November 2011), 7. 50 Ibid., 20. 51 Brunnée et al., Promoting Compliance in an Evolving Climate Regime, 8. 52 Margaret A. Young, 'Climate Change Law and Regime Interaction', Carbon and Climate Law Review 2 (2011): 147. 53 Margaret A. Young, Regime Interaction in International Law: Facing Fragmentation (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012); Thomas L. Brewer, 'The Trade Regime and the Climate Regime: Institutional Evolution and Adaptation', Climate Policy 3 (2003): 328. 54 See e.g. Kristen E. Boon, 'Coining a New Jurisdiction: The Security Council as Economic Peacekeeper', Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law 41, no. 4 (2008): 991; Darragh Conway, 'The United Nations Security Council and Climate Change: Challenges and Opportunities', Climate law 1, no. 3 (2010): 375; Lorraine Elliott, 'Imaginative Adaptations: A Possible Environmental Role for the UN Security Council', Contemporary Security Policy 24, no. 2 (2010): 47. Initiatives to address climate change have also been pursued within the International Civil Aviation Organisation and International Maritime Organisation. 55 See e.g. Catherine Tinker, '"Environmental Security" in the United Nations: Not a Matter for the Security Council', Tennessee Law Review 59 (1991–92): 787; Shirley V. Scott, 'Climate Change and Peak Oil as Threats to International Peace and Security: Is it Time for the Security Council to Legislate?', Melbourne Journal of International Law 9 (2008): 495; Shirley V. Scott, 'Securitizing Climate Change: International Legal Implications and Obstacles', Cambridge Review of International Affairs 21, no. 4 (2008): 604; Christina Voigt, 'Security in a "Warming World": Competences of the UN Security Council for Preventing Dangerous Climate Change', in Security: A Multidisciplinary Normative Approach, ed. Cecilia M. Bailliet (Leiden: Martinus Nijhof, 2009). 56 Charter of the United Nations, art. 24[1]. 57 United States, United Kingdom, France, Russia and China are permanent members. Charter of the United Nations, art. 23[1]. 58 Voigt, 'Security in a "Warming World"', 297; Boon, 'Coining a New Jurisdiction', 1011 citing Gaetano Arangio-Ruiz, 'The "Federal Analogy" and the UN Charter Interpretation: A Crucial Issue', European Journal of International Law 8 (1997): 2–3. 59 Charter of the United Nations, art. 24[2]; art. 1. 60 Conway, 'United Nations Security Council and Climate Change', 378 citing Case T-315/01 Kadi v. Council and Commission (2005) ECR II-03649, para. 226. 61 Charter of the United Nations, chapter VI. 62 Ibid., chapter VII. 63 Ibid., chapter VIII. 64 Chris Abbott, 'An Uncertain Future: Law Enforcement, National Security and Climate Change' (Fundación para las Relaciones Internacionales y el Diálogo Exterior (FRIDE), February 2008), 6, citing Ehsan Masood, 'Africans and Climate Change', openDemocracy, February 7, 2007, http://www.opendemocracy.net/globalization/climate_ africa_4328.jsp (accessed October 20, 2012). 65 SC Res. 1625, UN SCOR, 5261st mtg, UN Doc. S/RES/1625 (September 14, 2005), 3[4], emphasis added. 67 Conway, 'The United Nations Security Council and Climate Change', 379, citing Thomas M. Franck, 'Legitimacy in the International System', American Journal of International Law 82, no. 4 (1988): 705, and David D. Caron, 'The Legitimacy of Collective Authority of the Security Council', American Journal of International Law 87 (1993): 556–62. 66 See e.g. Tinker, '"Environmental Security" in the United Nations', 55. 68 Richard Falk argued for environmental change to be treated as a security issue in 1971. See Jon Barnett, 'Security and Climate Change', Global Environmental Change 13, no. 1 (2003): 8. 69 Nicole Detraz and Michele M. Betsill, 'Climate Change and Environmental Security: For Whom the Discourse Shifts', International Studies Perspectives 10 (2009): 305–6. 70 See Commission on Human Security, 'Human Security Now' (Washington, DC, 2003), 4. 72 Note by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 3046th mtg, UN Doc. S/23500 (January 31, 1992), 3, emphasis added. This was just one year after the Security Council's first official decision relating to environmental matters – the adoption of Security Council Resolution 687/1991 (1991) holding Iraq liable for inter alia environmental damage relating to the burning of Kuwaiti oil fields during the first Gulf War. See Philippe Sands and Jacqueline Peel, Principles of International Environmental Law, 3rd ed. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 69. 71 P. Brian Fisher, 'Climate Change and Human Security in Tuvalu', Global Change, Peace & Security 23, no. 3 (2011): 296; Ben Wisner et al., 'Climate Change and Human Security', Radix Online, April 16, 2007, http://www.radixonline.org/cchs.html (accessed June 9, 2012); Sir Nicholas Stern, The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 56, 81; High-level Panel on Threats Challenges and Change, 'A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility' (New York: United Nations, 2004), 26. 73 Gwyn Prins, 'AIDS and Global Security', International Affairs 80, no. 5 (2005): 931. 74 See e.g. SC Res. 1308, SCOR, 4172nd mtg, UN Doc. S/RES/1308 (July 17, 2000), 1, 2[1], 2[3]; SC Res. 1983, SCOR, 6547th mtg, UN Doc. S/RES/1983 (June 7, 2011), 2, 3[4], [7], [8], [9]. 75 Colin McInnes and Simon Rushton, 'HIV, AIDS and Security: Where Are We Now?', International Affairs 86, no. 1 (2010): 245. 76 Uwe Wissenbach, 'Climate Change as a Human-Security Threat or a Developmental Issue? Implementing a Catch-All Concept', The Korean Journal of Defense Analysis 22, no. 1 (2010): 32. 77 Jane McAdam and Ben Saul, 'An Insecure Climate for Human Security? Climate-Induced Displacement and International Law' (Sydney Centre for International Law Working Paper No. 4; Sydney Law School Research Paper No. 08/131, October 31, 2008), 17. 80 Detraz and. Betsill, 'Climate Change and Environmental Security', 310, citing UNFCCC, 'Report of the Conference of the Parties on its Eleventh Session, held at Montreal from November 28 to December 10, 2005' (2006), 23. 78 For a classic neo-Malthusian thesis see Robert D. Kaplan, 'The Coming Anarchy: How Scarcity, Crime, Overpopulation, Tribalism, and Disease are Rapidly Destroying the Social Fabric of our Planet', The Atlantic, February 1994, http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1994/02/the-coming-anarchy/4670/ (accessed June 3, 2012). 79 See e.g. CNA Corporation, 'National Security and the Threat of Climate Change. Report from a Panel of Retired Senior US Military Officers' (Alexandria, VA: CNA Corporation, April 2007); Abbott, 'An Uncertain Future'; German Advisory Council on Global Change (WBGU), 'Climate Change as a Security Risk' (London: Earthscan, 2008); Dan Smith and Janani Vivekananda, 'A Climate of Conflict: The Links between Climate Change, Peace and War' (International Alert, November 2007); Dan Smith and Janani Vivekananda, 'Climate Change, Conflict and Fragility: Understanding the Linkages, Shaping Effective Responses' (International Alert and Initiative for Peacebuilding – Early Warning (IfP-EW), November 2009). 81 Cullen S. Hendrix and Idean Salehyan, 'Climate Change, Rainfall and Social Conflict in Africa', Journal of Peace Research 49, no. 1 (2012): 35; Rafael Reuveny, 'Climate Change-Induced Migration and Violent Conflict', Political Geography 26, no. 6 (2007): 660 citing P.F. Diehl and N.P. Gleditsch, eds., 'Special Issue, Environmental Conflict', Journal of Peace Research 35, no. 3 (1998). See contra Rune T. Slettebak, 'Don't Blame the Weather! Climate-Related Natural Disasters and Civil Conflict', Journal of Peace Research 49, no. 1 (2012): 163. 82 See e.g. Vally Koubi et al., 'Climate Variability, Economic Growth, and Civil Conflict', Journal of Peace Research 49, no. 1 (2012): 113; Erik Gartzke, 'Could Climate Change Precipitate Peace?', Journal of Peace Research 49, no. 1 (2012): 177; Oli Brown, Anne Hammill and Robert McLeman, 'Climate Change as the "New" Security Threat: Implications for Africa', International Affairs 83, no. 6 (2007): 1147; Uwe Wissenbach, 'Climate Change as a Human-Security Threat or a Developmental Issue?', 34; Detraz and Betsill, 'Climate Change and Environmental Security', 28. 83 See e.g. Ole Magnus Theisen, 'Climate Clashes? Weather Variability, Land Pressure, and Organised Violence in Kenya, 1989–2004', Journal of Peace Research 49, no. 1 (2012): 81; Tor A. Benjaminsen, 'Does Climate Change Drive Land-Use Conflicts in Sahel?', Journal of Peace Research 49, no. 1 (2012): 97; Eran Feitelson, Abdelrahman Tamimi and Gad Rosenthal, 'Climate Change and Security in the Israeli − Palestinian Context', Journal of Peace Research 49 (2012): 241; Val Percival and Thomas Homer-Dixon, 'Environmental Scarcity and Violent Conflict: The Case of Rwanda', The Journal of Environment Development 5 (1996): 270; Marisa Goulden and Roger Few, 'Climate Change, Water and Conflict in the Niger River Basin' (International Alert and University of East Anglia, December 2011); Cullen S. Hendrix and Sarah M. Glaser, 'Trends and Triggers: Climate, Climate Change and Civil Conflict in Sub-Saharan Africa', Political Geography 26, no. 6 (2007): 710–11. 84 Ragnhild Nordås and Nils Petter Gleditsch, 'IPCC and the Climate–Conflict Nexus' (paper presented at the 50th Convention of the International Studies Association, New York, Februrary 15–18, 2009), 23. See also Nils Petter Gleditsch, 'Whither the Weather? Climate Change and Conflict', Journal of Peace Research 49, no. 1 (2012): 3. 85 Nordås and Gleditsch, 'Climate Change and Conflict', 633; Patrick Philippe Meier, 'Bridging Multiple Divides in Early Warning and Response' (paper presented at the 49th International Studies Association Convention, San Francisco, March 25–29, 2008), 2–3. 86 Oli Brown and Robert McLeman, 'A Recurring Anarchy? The emergence of climate change as a threat to international peace and security', Conflict, Security & Development 9, no. 3 (2009): 299. 87 Climate Change and Its Possible Security Implications: Report of the Secretary-General, UN GAOR, 64th sess, Agenda Item 114, A/64/350 (September 11, 2009), 6[13]; Achim Steiner, Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) statement at 2011 Security Council Debate on Climate Change, see Department of Public Information, 'Security Council, in Statement, Says "Contextual Information" on Possible Security Implications of Climate Change Important when Climate Impacts Drive Conflict', UN SCOR, 6587th mtg, UN Doc. SC/10332 (July 20, 2011). 88 Ibid., 23[77]. See also Smith and Vivekananda, 'A Climate of Conflict', 10–11. 92 Mimura et al., 'Small Islands – Climate Change 2007', 707, citing J. Barnett and W.N. Adger, 'Climate Dangers and Atoll Countries', Climatic Change 61 (2003): 321–37. 89 Nobuo Mimura et al., 'Small Islands – Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II', in Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. O.F. Canziani et al. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 687. 90 Christopher K. Penny, 'Greening the Security Council: Climate Change as an Emerging Threat to International Peace and Security', International Environmental Agreements 7 (2007): 40. 91 Young, 'Climate Change Law and Regime Interaction', 147. 93 For analysis of climate inducted migration predictions see Sir Nicholas Stern, Stern Review, 77; Frank Biermann and Ingrid Boas, 'Protecting Climate Refugees: A Case for a Global Protocol', Environment Magazine 50, no. 6 (2008): 10. 94 For explanation of Small Island Developing States' (SIDS) '1.5 To Stay Alive' campaign and arguments for for limiting warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius see Raúl I. Alfaro-Pelico, 'Small Island Developing States and Climate Change: Effects, Responses and Positions beyond Durban' (Elcano Royal Institute Working Paper 1, Madrid, January 2012). 95 A third 'informal' Security Council meeting (Arria formula briefing) on climate changes was also held on February 15, 2013 at the initiative of Pakistan and the United Kingdom. The outcome of this meeting has not been considered in this study as it took place too close to publication. See 'Wars in Prospect as Climate Change Stirs Unrest, UN Told', Sydney Morning Herald, February 16, 2013, http://www.smh.com.au/environment/climate-change/wars-in-prospect-as-climate-change-stirs-unrest-un-told-20130216-2eje5.html (accessed March 8, 2013). 96 Department of Public Information, 'Security Council Holds First-Ever Debate on Impact of Climate Change on Peace, Security, Hearing over 50 Speakers', 5663rd mtg, UN Doc. SC/9000, April 17, 2007. 97 'Energy, Security and Climate Security Council Open Debate: United Kingdom Concept Paper', UN Doc. S/2007/186 (April 5, 2007) annex to Letter dated April 5, 2007 from the Permanent Representative of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council, 2[2]. 98 Francesco Sindico, 'Climate Change: A Security (Council) Issue?', Carbon and Climate Law 1 (2007): 29. 99 For states' arguments for and against considering climate change as a security threat within the UN Security Council's remit see ibid. 100 Detraz and Betsill, 'Climate Change and Environmental Security', 311. 101 Ibid., 312. 102 Department of Public Information, 'Security Council Holds First-Ever Debate on Impact of Climate Change on Peace, Security, Hearing over 50 Speakers', 5663rd mtg, UN Doc. SC/9000, April 17, 2007. 103 Around 70% of those supporting Security Council jurisdiction were Northern speakers, compared to 29% Southern speakers, pointing to a clear North/South divide on the issue. Nicole Detraz and Michele M. Betsill, 'Climate Change and Environmental Security', 312. 104 Ibid., 312. 105 Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly: Climate Change and its Possible Security Implications, GA Res. 63/281, UN GAOR, 63rd sess, 85th mtg, Agenda Item 107, A/RES/63/281 (June 11, 2009), 2. 106 Ibid., 2[1]. 107 Institute for Environmental Security, 'UN Security Council Debates Climate Change and Security', July 20, 2011, http://www.envirosecurity.org/news/single.php?id=336 (accessed June 20, 2012). 108 See e.g. Egypt's statement on behalf of the Non-Aligned Movement, China, Argentina on behalf of the G77 + China, Iran, Kuwait in Department of Public Information, 'Security Council, in Statement, Says "Contextual Information" on Possible Security Implications of Climate Change Important when Climate Impacts Drive Conflict', UN SCOR, 6587th mtg, UN Doc. SC/10332, July 20, 2011. 109 Katie Harris, 'Climate Change and UK Security Policy: Implications for Development Assistance?' (Overseas Development Institute Working Paper 342, London, January 2012), 5. 110 Barbados statement on behalf of CARICOM in Department of Public Information, 'Security Council, in Statement, Says "Contextual Information" on Possible Security Implications of Climate Change Important when Climate Impacts Drive Conflict'. 111 Maintenance of International Peace and Security: Impact of Climate Change, UN SCOR, 6587th meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.658720, July 2011, 9. 112 Ibid., 13. 113 Ibid. 114 Charter of the United Nations, art. 27[3]. 115 Ibid., art. 27[2]. 116 Maintenance of International Peace and Security: Impact of Climate Change, UN SCOR, 6587th meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.658720, July 2011, 27. 117 Ibid., 29. 118 Ibid., 16. 119 Proposal by Papua New Guinea and Spain in Ibid. For analysis of treatment of HIV/AIDS as a security issue on the UN Security Council since 2000 see Colin McInnes and Simon Rushton, 'HIV, AIDS and Security: Where Are We Now?', International Affairs 86, no. 1 (2010): 225; and Prins, 'AIDS and Global Security'. 120 Proposal by El Salvador and Nauru, on behalf of the Pacific Small Island Developing States, the Maldives, Seychelles and Timor-Leste. See Department of Public Information, 'Security Council, in Statement, Says "Contextual Information" on Possible Security Implications of Climate Change Important when Climate Impacts Drive Conflict'. 121 Ibid. 122 There were 13 statements relating to a monitoring, early warning and preparedness role for the Security Council, proposed by 11 states: United States, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Portugal, Nauru, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, Hungary, Poland, Papua New Guinea and Finland. Finland and PNG were the only states that did not explicitly refer to migration or loss of territory related to sea-level rise. See ibid. 123 Germany has led efforts to step up exploration of climate diplomacy options since the debate, including running a conference in Berlin in October 2011 on the subject. See German Federal Foreign Office, 'Climate Diplomacy in Perspective: From Early Warning to Early Action', October 10–11, 2011, http://climatediplomacy.org/home/dok/43544.php (accessed June 20, 2012). 124 Permanent members United States, United Kingdom; and non-permanent members Lebanon, Gabon, Portugal and Germany. See Department of Public Information, 'Security Council, in Statement, Says "Contextual Information" on Possible Security Implications of Climate Change Important when Climate Impacts Drive Conflict'. 125 Penny, 'Greening the Security Council'; Scott, 'Climate Change and Peak Oil'. 126 Charter of the United Nations, art. 29. This option has been explored in detail in Shirley V. Scott and Roberta C.D. Andrade, 'The Global Response to Climate Change: Can the Security Council Assume a Lead Role?', Brown Journal of World Affairs 18, no. 2 (2012): 220–24. 127 Statement by the President of the Security Council, 6587th mtg, S/PRST/2011/15, July 20, 2011, 2[2], emphasis added. 128 Ibid. 129 Report of the Secretary-General on the African Union–United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur, UN Doc. S/2011/814 (December 30, 2011); Report of the Secretary-General on the African Union–United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur, UN Doc. S/2011/643 (October 12, 2011); Report of the Secretary-General on the African Union–United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur, UN Doc. S/2012/231 (April 17, 2012). 130 See e.g. Salah Hakim, 'The Role of Climate Change in the Darfur Crisis', in Climate Change Management: The Economic, Social and Political Elements of Climate Change, ed. Walter Leal Filho (Berlin: Springer, 2011); Ban Ki Moon, 'A Climate Culprit In Darfur', Washington Post, June 16, 2007, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/06/15/AR2007061501857.html; Stephan Faris, 'The Real Roots of Darfur', The Atlantic, April 2007, 67. 131 Report of the Secretary-General on Somalia, UN Doc. S/2011/549 (August 30, 2011), 5–6[27], 17[120]; Report of the Secretary-General on the Protection of Somali Natural Resources and Waters, UN Doc. S/2011/661 (October 25, 2011), 2[5], 3[1o]. 132 Report of the Secretary-General on Somalia, UN Doc. S/2012/283 (May 1, 2012); Special Report of the Secretary-General on Somalia, UN Doc. S/2012/74 (31 January 2012); Report of the Secretary-General on Specialized Anti-Piracy Courts in Somalia and other States in the Region, UN Doc. S/2012/50 (January 20, 2012); Report of the Secretary-General on Somalia, UN Doc. S/2011/759 (December 9, 2011). 133 'Implementation of the Recommendations Contained in the Report of the Secretary-General on the Causes of Conflict and the Promotion of Durable Peace and Sustainable Development in Africa', UN Doc. S/2011/476 (August 1, 2011), 19[90], 19[91], 15[68], 16[74], 14–15[67]. 134 Charter of the United Nations, art. 33[2]. 135 Ibid., art. 35. 136 Ibid., art. 34. 137 Sindico, 'Climate Change: A Security (Council) Issue?', 33. 138 For analysis of this session see Security Council Report, 'Arria Formula Meeting on Climate Change', What's in Blue, posted February 14, 2013, http://www.whatsinblue.org/2013/02/arria-formula-meeting-on-climate-change.php (accessed April 27, 2013).