The major advances in epilepsy in the 20th century and what we can expect (hope for) in the future
2009; Wiley; Volume: 50; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1111/j.1528-1167.2009.02049.x
ISSN1528-1167
Autores Tópico(s)Epilepsy research and treatment
ResumoThe management of many of these cases of chronic convulsive disease is a task of difficulty, requiring the utmost patience and perseverance on the part of both the patient and the physician. The old power of casting them out has gone from the earth, and it is only the study of their origin and history, and careful experiment in their treatment, that we can hope to regain over them such power as may still be possible to man. And the present generation has witnessed an advance in the treatment of these diseases equaled in perhaps no other branch of therapeutics. Thanks to the influence of one drug and its combinations, hundreds of epileptics have been cured, and thousands are leading useful lives who would otherwise have been incapacitated by the disease. Although the condition of many sufferers is still gloomy enough, it is not now without hope, and to them also, we may surely trust the progress of the recent past is the dawn of a brighter day. W. R. Gowers, M.D., F.R.C.P., September, 1881(Gowers, 1885) In the preceding quotation, Gowers briefly summarized major 19th century epilepsy advances. Still to come in that century were animal research convulsion models and establishment of the discipline of neurosurgery. Two books summarized epilepsy in that time period: from Britain (Turner, 1907) and from the United States (U.S.) (Spratling, 1904). Both authors were involved in the worldwide system of colonies established to provide lifelong care for epileptics in an isolated and protective environment. In 1898, in the U.S., William Letchworth, L.L.D. and Frederick Peterson, M.D., organized the National Association for the Study of Epilepsy and the Care and Treatment of Epileptics, for “any person interested in the scientific study of epilepsy, or in the study of ways and means to improve the condition of epileptics, or in sociological subjects generally” (Letchworth, 1901). The Association became the American affiliate of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), when the latter was founded in Budapest, Hungary in August, 1909. The Association ceased to exist in 1925. In 1903, Lundborg described progressive myoclonic epilepsy. Gowers (1907) published The Borderlands of Epilepsy. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) examination was used diagnostically. In 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen discovered the x-ray, and by 1896 Pean and Mergier demonstrated skull lesions but not brain imaging. Sherrington (1906) published Integrative Action of the Nervous System. The 1906 Nobel Prize went to Golgi and Cajal for identifying neurons and synapses. Adrenalin was studied prior to neurotransmitter identification. In 1912, phenobarbital was synthesized and replaced bromide (Hauptmann, 1912). World War I interrupted the U.S. supply of phenobarbital, creating major treatment problems, as documented in Rusk’s autobiography (Rusk, 1972) and by Grinker (1920), who had used phenobarbital since 1913. A U.S. Army World War I Division of Neurology and Psychiatry, headed by Pearce Bailey, examined military recruits—leading to epilepsy epidemiologic data—and treated and rehabilitated injured soldiers. Neurodiagnostic studies became available in 1918 when Walter Dandy described pneumoventriculography and (in 1919) pneumoencephalography. Some U.S. institutions started developing clinical neurology as a full-time discipline. The Boston City Hospital (BCH) Neurological Unit, Harvard Medical School, became the dominant epilepsy force in 1920 when Stanley Cobb began research on experimental convulsions and recruited staff, who would make key contributions for the next two decades. William Lennox arrived in 1921, and made epilepsy his life work. Lennox’s forte was in thoroughly summarizing the epilepsy literature as a stimulus for other researchers. His first monograph (Lennox & Cobb, 1928), and ultimately the two-volume book Epilepsy and Related Disorders (Lennox & Lennox, 1960), were signal publications. His research was on effects of starvation, ketogenic diet, and altered cerebral oxygen in seizures. Much of his work resulted in negative findings. A 1928 Rockefeller Foundation endowment established a full-time neurology unit at BCH, which then served as a model for creation of academic center Neurology Departments (White, 1984). Dandy used hemispherectomy for glioblastoma, a procedure not utilized significantly for epilepsy until the 1990s. By 1929, Egar Moniz had introduced arteriography. Dale and Dudley identified acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter studied in epileptiform activity. Berger (1929) reported human brain waves, later replicated by Adrian and Mathews (1934). Frederick Gibbs joined BCH full time in 1929; with his wife, Erna Leonhardt, he collaborated with Lennox and Hallowell Davis to study electroencephalography (EEG) of epilepsy patients using a single-channel Western Union undulator. In 1935, they published the first description of three Hertz spike and wave activity correlating with petit mal seizures. They recruited an electronics expert from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Albert Grass, who built a three-channel EEG machine, which led to the formation of Grass Instruments Company, for years the major EEG machine manufacturer. The BCH group described the three most common seizure types: petit mal, psychomotor, and grand mal. The Gibbses eventually moved to the University of Illinois and collaborated with Percival Bailey on temporal lobe epilepsy surgery. In 1928, H. Houston Merritt and Tracy Putnam joined BCH. In 1938, they discovered that phenytoin (then called diphenylhydantoin) increased the seizure threshold of electrically induced cat convulsions. They proceeded to clinical trials and found good seizure control (Merritt & Putnam, 1938). Parke-Davis marketed Dilantin that same year, since the Federal Food and Drug Act of 1906 required only accurate labeling. Merritt and Putnam (1945) continued to screen more than 600 Parke-Davis compounds, but none was as effective as phenytoin. Phenytoin became immediately popular in the U.S., but had delayed European use, possibly because of difficulty obtaining it due to World War II. Victor Horsley in 1886 localized and removed an epileptogenic lesion at the National Hospital, London. In Germany, Fedor Krause and Otfrid Foerster further refined surgical technique. Wilder Penfield studied technique with Foerster, returning in 1928 to Montreal, Canada. In November 1928, working with William Cone, Penfield used the Foerster method on an epilepsy patient. In 1934, Penfield founded the Montreal Neurological Institute (MNI), which uniquely combined a 50-bed neurologic disorders hospital with a brain research center. Epilepsy was the main theme of “The Neuro.” In 1939 Herbert Jasper established the MNI EEG laboratory. Work at the MNI included not only surgery but also many areas of epilepsy including: neurochemistry; the thalamic intralaminar system; cortical localization of language, spatial, auditory and visual perception; the role of the amygdala particularly in amnesia; brain tumors; and cerebral circulation. Epilepsy and the Functional Anatomy of the Brain (Penfield & Jasper, 1954) became an important source for epilepsy syndrome descriptions, their EEG correlates, and surgical management. In the 1930s, eugenics became an issue. Genetics was incompletely understood, but in some cases seizures appeared to be familial. Castration and sterilization were considered as potential treatments. In 1936, the American Neurological Association Committee for the Investigation of Eugenical Sterilization published a report (Myerson et al., 1936), indicating sterilization should be voluntary, done only with patient consent, and under supervision of a trained board. The report indicated that in special or selective cases, sterilization might be indicated in epilepsy—but that for epileptics with infrequent seizures and an “intact personality,” sterilization should not be performed. It would be some time before sterilization for epilepsy would be eliminated worldwide. Sulfanilamide was a major 1930s medical advance, but in 1937 a U.S. sulfanilamide preparation containing diethylene glycol caused more than 70 deaths, leading to new regulations for the preparation, safety, testing, labeling, distribution, and marketing of drugs. In 1938, at the American Psychiatric Association meeting, Robert Schwab showed moving pictures of seizures using two cameras operating simultaneously. Television in the 1950s and closed-circuit television monitoring would ultimately lead to epilepsy monitoring units. Lennox stayed at BCH until the early 1940s, moved briefly to Boston Psychopathic Hospital, and in 1944 moved to Boston Children’s Hospital and established the Seizure Unit. He died in 1960. The Lennox family also made significant epilepsy contributions. His wife, Emma Buchtel Lennox, helped found the Epilepsy Society of Massachusetts. His daughter, Margaret Lennox Buchthal, a neurophysiologist at Copenhagen University where her husband Fritz Buchthal did early work on phenytoin blood levels, was Editor-in-Chief of Epilepsia from 1969 to 1973. From 1944 to 1946, the RK Richards group demonstrated that trimethadione prevented pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) induced rat seizures and was effective for human absence seizures (Richards & Everett, 1946). The team at the University of Utah, with L. Goodman, J. Toman, E. Swinyard, and later D. Woodbury, developed a laboratory battery to screen compounds for potential anticonvulsant activity, which continued to be used for the rest of the century. The screen was based on the observation that drugs such as phenytoin first reduce duration and then abolish extensor component of the tonic phase of maximal electroshock seizures (MES) but do not prevent PTZ-induced threshold seizures. Conversely, trimethadione and antiabsence drugs prevent PTZ-induced seizures but are ineffective against MES. From a social perspective, the new antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) were invaluable. Phenytoin permitted seizure control and allowed discharge of colony residents to reenter society. Public advertisement campaigns included pamphlets like “The Ghost is Out of the Closet” and educational film strips, which were widely used at that time period in both schools and movie houses. Anatomic studies early in the century attempted to elucidate the role of cortical and subcortical centers in the genesis of the tonic and clonic seizure components, mainly from observation of motor effects derived from a particular stimulation. Electrophysiology became a major tool, with study of discharges and after discharges, recruiting responses, and spreading depression (Purpura, 1953). Moruzzi and Magoun demonstrated the reticular activating system. Despite the horrors of World War II, compassion did prevail. In Germany, the leader of the Bethel Epilepsiezentrum and the Hospital Mara in Bielefeld, Germany, was able to protect the residents from destruction. As a result of World War II, the Declaration of Helsinki, defining human research, was adopted in 1946. Juhn Wada survived World War II as a medical student in Japan. At the Hokkaido Imperial University Hospital Department of Neurology and Psychiatry, his work with psychiatric electroshock led to the recognition of the need for cognitive side effect prevention. He obtained sodium amytal from the U.S. Army Hospital in Sapporo, and despite concerns, injected the left carotid of a status epilepticus patient—with resultant seizure cessation and loss of motor and speech function. He immediately recognized the value this procedure might have for cerebral speech lateralization. Jean Talairach and Jean Bancaud continued their work on stereotactic surgery through World War II in the Paris underground sewers, and developed a stereotactic human brain atlas allowing implanted depth electrodes to define the extent and location of epileptogenic regions. In December, 1946, a joint meeting of the ILAE, the American League Against Epilepsy (renamed the American Epilepsy Society in 1954), and the Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Diseases was held in New York. The published proceedings (Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Disease, 1946) summarized the state of epilepsy and served as a stimulus to reactivate the groups and as a nidus for future work worldwide. Transistors and oscilloscopes were developed in the 1940s and researchers no longer had to use smoked drums for recording experiments. In 1949 Roberts and Frankel found an unknown ninhydrin-positive substance in chromatographed fresh human brain tissue, which was identified the following year as γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), the inhibitory neurotransmitter. In 1947, George Dawson recorded evoked responses from the human scalp in response to somatosensory stimuli. Corpus callosum section was introduced for seizures. At the end of World War II, Henri Gastaut began recording EEGs on a one-channel Marey roller. In 1946 he studied with Grey Walter in Bristol and discovered photic stimulation as an EEG seizure activator. Returning to Marseille, he created the Timone Hospital EEG Laboratory with a four-channel Grass EEG. He became a founder of the International EEG Federation. In 1949, he traveled to study with Penfield and Jasper in Montreal, and studied the role of thalamic reticular structures in the genesis of Metrazol-induced generalized paroxysmal EEG discharges and developed the concept of centrencephalic seizures. He returned to make the Marseille School the dominant epilepsy force for several decades. In 1953 he became head of the Marseille Hospital Neurobiological Laboratories. In 1958 he cofounded the Brittany Toul-ar-Choat Center for education of children with epilepsy. In 1960 he created the “Centre Saint Paul” to provide services to children with epilepsy. In 1961, he created the INSERM neurobiology research unit. From 1950 to 1980 he was the leader of the Marseille Colloquia. His dynamic and unique personality attracted students and collaborators worldwide and created an international network that became known as the Marseille School. Between 1947 and 1987, collaborating with his wife Yvette, Gastaut defined five major human EEG patterns: lambda waves, pi rhythm, mu rhythm, rolandic spikes, and posterior theta rhythm. He studied EEG photic activation and photic-PTZ activation. Throughout his career he delineated and defined the semiology of patients; he defined television-induced seizures along with other photically and self-induced seizures, startle epilepsy, hemiconvulsion-hemiplegia-epilepsy (HHE syndrome), severe childhood encephalopathy (Lennox-Gastaut syndrome), and benign partial epilepsy of childhood with occipital spike-waves. In 1953 Murray Falconer in London introduced and became a leading proponent of en bloc anterior temporal lobe resection, and introduced the term mesial temporal sclerosis. Falconer considered birth injury the etiology of this condition, but eventually multiple etiologic factors were identified. Surgical tissue pathologic analysis by Margerison and Corsellis led to the term hippocampal sclerosis. In 1953, Watson and Crick described the structure of the DNA molecule. In the U.S., the American League Against Epilepsy conducted surveys, published in 1952, in the areas of electroencephalography, anticonvulsant and convulsant agents, and experimental epilepsy, and identified areas for future improvement. The U.S. Veterans Administration (VA) established a VA Center for Epilepsy under the direction of Lennox and Jerome Merlis at the Cushing Veterans Administration Hospital, Framingham, Massachusetts. The program grew to VA Epilepsy Research Centers in multiple locations. The American Academy of Neurology (founded in 1948) coordinated a unified political action committee resulting in 1950 in establishment of the National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Blindness (NINDB)—subsequently called the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)—of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in Bethesda, Maryland. Its mission was developing and supporting neurologic disease research. Pearce Bailey was first director. Early NINDB epilepsy interest was in the Intramural Program, to which Bailey recruited neurosurgeon Maitland Baldwin, electrophysiologist Cosimo Ajmone-Marsan, and neurochemist Donald Tower. In cooperation with the ILAE, they organized and published a colloquium on temporal lobe epilepsy (Baldwin & Bailey, 1958). The International Bureau for Epilepsy (IBE) was established in 1961 for laypersons and professionals interested in the medical and nonmedical aspects of epilepsy. Gastaut, recognizing the important relationship between the EEG and clinical seizure semiology and the need for a common method of communication, spearheaded the effort for classifications and a dictionary of epilepsy (Gastaut, 1973). After multiple revisions and spirited debate, the first ILAE version was published (Supplement, 1969). By the late 1950s, Americans indicated to the U.S. Congress that funding of neurologic disease programs was a priority. In response, the Congress passed legislation in 1961, indicating neurologic disease progress was ready for widespread application, and U.S. government sponsored programs became the dominant force in epilepsy for several decades. The U.S. Public Health Service Surgeon General in 1962 created the Neurological and Sensory Disease Control Program (NSDCP). NSDCP undertook a multidisciplinary approach to improve epilepsy services through studies, service demonstration grants, training grants, and educational and informational activities (Cereghino & Cole, 1971). In 1965, the Secretary of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Anthony Celebrezze, organized a meeting that called for expansion of epilepsy research and services. As a result, in 1966 the U.S. Surgeon General William Stewart created the Surgeon General’s Public Health Service Advisory Committee on the Epilepsies (H. Houston Merritt, chair) with two subcommittees: David Daly chaired the Service and Service Training Subcommittee, staffed by NSDCP with Terrance Capistrant and then James Cereghino as Executive Secretary; Arthur Ward chaired the Research and Research Training Subcommittee staffed by NINDB with William Caveness and then J. Kiffin Penry as Executive Secretary. Because of government reorganization, NSDCP was terminated in 1970, but the Advisory Committee continued at NIH and much of the information collected by NSDCP formed the basis for the NIH-funded Comprehensive Epilepsy Programs. Richard Masland succeeded Pearce Bailey as NINDB Director in 1959. Masland came to NIH in 1958 to lead the National Collaborative Perinatal Project, which prospectively studied 54,000 pregnancies occurring between 1959 and 1966 and provided much epilepsy information. In 1964, Masland recruited J. Preston Robb to survey epilepsy research facilities in the U.S. and Canada, and this material was published as NINDB Monograph no.1, Epilepsy: A Review of Basic and Clinical Research. In the early 1960s, William Caveness was responsible for the NINDB epilepsy Extramural Program, but in 1966 Masland appointed J. Kiffin Penry as Head of the Epilepsy Section (later to be called the Epilepsy Branch). This appointment was done specifically to implement Epilepsy Advisory Committee recommendations. The Epilepsy Branch was responsible for all epilepsy research grants and for a contract program that allowed flexibility in awarding contracts based on the Advisory Committee recommendations. Under Penry’s guidance, the Epilepsy Branch began intensive initiatives to advance knowledge in all areas of epilepsy. Penry retired from the NIH in 1979. Thalidomide, identified as a major teratogen in 1964, led to significantly changed U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) new-compound licensing requirements, requiring proof of efficacy and increased safety requirements. In 1969, the first U.S. board certification in child neurology, as a separate specialty, was awarded. The Child Neurology Society was established in 1972. In 1969 the Society for Neuroscience was established. The mirror focus was described. The Stanford group—Prince, Morrell et al.—developed a significant training program. The physiology of synapses was being extensively studied by Eccles, Kandel, Spencer, Speckman, Purpura, Meldrum, and others. Kandel would win the 2000 Nobel Prize for work on the molecular biology of memory storage. Graham Goddard in 1967 first reported the kindling phenomena. Penry recognized that individuals engaged in various facets of epilepsy work (bridging the basic and clinical sciences) were scattered worldwide, making optimal communication difficult. With the guidance of the Epilepsy Advisory Committee, he developed a series of planning workshops leading to symposia, and publications. Each publication was designed to be an authoritative statement, with leading individuals in the field summarizing recent knowledge and pointing the way for further work. The first publication in 1969 was Basic Mechanisms of the Epilepsies, followed by Antiepileptic Drugs, Neurosurgical Management of the Epilepsies, Complex Partial Seizures and Their Treatment, and Antiepileptic Drugs Mechanisms of Action. Many of these volumes have continued to multiple editions. No new chronic AED had become available in the U.S. since 1960, despite the availability of carbamazepine and valproate in Europe since the 1960s. The pharmaceutical industry was reluctant to attempt controlled clinical trials. Penry recruited Cereghino in 1970 to devise a clinical trial. Penry had identified a patient population at the New Castle, Indiana State Hospital that had participated in some early efforts at controlled trials. Harvey Kupferberg was recruited, and he devised a blood-level methodology to measure albutoin. Albutoin was shown not to be an effective AED, but information learned about trial design was documented in the first edition of Antiepileptic Drugs. Carbamazepine, the next drug studied at New Castle, was effective, and the study was submitted for FDA approval. That trial received the first ILAE Award for Best Controlled Clinical Trial of an AED. The NINCDS AED Program then grew to include not only clinical trials, but also synthesis of putative AEDs, screening for anticonvulsant activity, and preclinical toxicology. Working with the pharmaceutical industry, the NIH has been involved in the development of all new AEDs marketed during the remainder of the century (Porter et al., 1984). The Epilepsy Branch, working with Charles Pippenger, helped develop blood-level methodology for AEDs. The Branch also worked with Fritz Dreifuss on video-monitoring, particularly of absence seizures, and on classification of the epilepsies and seizures. In 1975, the U.S. Commission for the Control of Epilepsy and its Consequences was established with Richard Masland as Executive Director and David Daly as Chair. The Commission developed a multivolume Plan for Nationwide Action on Epilepsy. Working with the U.S. government and the Epilepsy Foundation of America, some of the goals of the plan were implemented. A similar plan was established in the United Kingdom. In the U.S. there was deinstitutionalization of the developmentally disabled; by the end of the century almost all institutional facilities for the developmentally disabled (a term that encompassed mental retardation, cerebral palsy, epilepsy, and some other neurologic conditions) had been closed and residents placed in less-restrictive housing. In 1974, Erwin Neher invented the patch clamp to measure the flow of current through single-ion channels, thereby confirming their existence. The 1980s saw huge changes in diagnosis based on the availability of new imaging techniques. Prior to the 1970s, imaging techniques were limited to skull x-rays, arteriography, pneumoencephalography, and radioactive isotope uptake studies. In 1972, G. N. Hounsfeld of EMI Limited, London produced a CT scan prototype, based on the earlier concept of axial tomography developed by William Oldendorf. Physicists continued to develop more elaborate methods of imaging, and MRI became a primary clinical tool. Although described in 1952, the prohibitive cost of the cyclotron in positron emission tomography (PET) scanning prevented widespread use until 1974. 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose for determination of local cerebral localization began in 1977. In 1989, an ILAE revision of the seizure and the epilepsies classifications produced much debate. Video-EEG monitoring was used to adjudicate differences by reviewing and re-reviewing individual seizures. It became apparent that American epileptologists had not been as cognizant of epilepsy syndromes as their European and Japanese colleagues. Scanning the named syndromes identifies epileptologists active during this time period: Janz syndrome, Dravet’s syndrome, Ohtahara syndrome, Panayiotopoulos syndrome, Rasmussen’s syndrome, Landau-Kleffner syndrome, and others. Evaluation of psychological and social factors began. The Washington Psychosocial Inventory was developed in 1980. In the 1990s, Quality of Life tools were developed. Recombinant DNA, rapid DNA sequencing, and chromosomal localization became available. In 1983 the genetic defect in Huntington’s disease was localized. However, results relevant to epilepsy syndromes were slower to be obtained. Designated as the Decade of the Brain, this period focused worldwide attention to the need and promise of neurologic research. The concept of translational research was introduced. In 1997, the worldwide Global Campaign Against Epilepsy was jointly initiated by the World Health Organization, the ILAE, and the IBE to bring epilepsy “Out of the Shadows” by improving diagnosis, treatment, prevention, and social acceptability. The first phase increased public and professional awareness of epilepsy as a universal treatable brain disorder, and raised epilepsy to a new acceptability level in the public eye. The second phase is devoted to activities that promote public and professional epilepsy education, identify regional and national needs, and encourage governments and departments of health to address the needs. The entire human genome was mapped and held promise for epilepsy. Gabapentin (Neurontin), marketed in the U.S. in 1993, was the first approved AED not metabolized in the liver, making drug interactions a lesser problem. More non–liver-enzyme inducing AEDs followed. Vagal nerve stimulation was introduced. Long-term direct cortical monitoring was used to identify cortical areas to receive immediate treatment by direct AED release or stimulus delivery. Currently we are witnessing a kaleidoscope of new technology that is changing the face of medicine. At least for the first part of the 21st century, it appears that scientific growth will be dominated by genetic research and computer and information technology development. Prevention of epilepsy, not suppression of seizures, is the ultimate goal of epilepsy treatment. Recent work has shown that early treatment may block changes in the expression of ion channels. The next step appears to be to determine the effect of non-AEDs on the ion channels. The work also suggests that there may be a window for therapeutic intervention before seizures begin. Micro RNA studies are suggesting that tuberous sclerosis complex, a syndrome with seizures, may be preventable; clinical trials have been proposed. Screening methods to improve identification of potential AEDs need to be expanded to include newer presumed mechanisms of seizure generation. Genetic prediction of side effects is now a reality. Studies have shown that the presence of HLA-B*1502 allele is strongly associated with development of severe dermatologic reactions with carbamazepine administration. More genetic predictors both of side effects and efficacy will be developed. Research on the role of neuroglial cells has been slow in coming. The role of the immune system, particularly because of tantalizing findings from AED studies (Cereghino, 1983), needs to be further explored. The role of prenatal or early viral infections (such as HHV and HHS) and of latent CNS viruses is unknown. Computer “reconstructions” of the brain have been developed; soon superimposed chemical reactions, to correlate with anatomy, will become a reality. As we enter the 21st century, technology is developing new vehicles for our journey into the unknown. We need to keep our eyes on the scientific horizon, be open to the unexpected, and be ready to make bold decisions. In the 20th century, epilepsy management remains a difficult task requiring the utmost patience and perseverance on the part of both the patient and physician. Myths about epilepsy have been dispelled and social acceptance has been raised to a new level. Although therapeutic advances have led to seizure control for millions of patients, we still have only therapies that have side effects and do not prevent epilepsy. Tremendous advances in technology have permitted a greater understanding of seizure genesis, but we still do not have a complete understanding. We can be optimistic about the future. It is exciting to see the rapid application of new discoveries—from both research and clinical practice—that will improve the everyday lives of people with seizures, which is, after all, our main goal. I apologize to anyone or any event that I have forgotten to include. Omissions and/or errors are not intentional, but a century is a long period to cover. I confirm that I have read the journal’s position on issues involved in ethical publication and affirm that this report is consistent with those guidelines. Disclosure: The author declares no conflicts of interest.
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