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Death, the Great Equalizer: Memorializing Martyred ( Shahid ) Women in the Islamic Republic of Iran

2012; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 25; Issue: 1-2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/08949468.2012.629173

1545-5920

Faegheh Shirazi,

Historical and Religious Studies of Rome

Abstract In the Islamic Republic of Iran the Bonyad-e Shahid (Martyrs Foundation) has recently added a new wing to its Museum of Martyrs. That addition is dedicated solely to female martyrs, to honor the “fallen ones.” The decision to build a women's section at the Museum of Martyrs reflects the Islamic Republic's new intention to project public images of modernization and gender equality. This article explores the concept of martyrs in Shiite tradition, and more specifically the newly emerging phenomenon of the female martyr. Here an effort will be made to understand the diverse meanings and uses of the word shahid (martyr), not only by the Iranian government but also in the daily lives and popular religious practices of the Iranian people. The discussion will also address the importance of images and personal objects housed in the museum. Notes Baldwin Smith [1998]; for other definitions, see Wuthnow [Citation1998: 404–497]. For example, see Lester, Yang and Lindsay [Citation2004: 283–95]; Khashan [Citation2003: 1049–1067]; and Wintrobe [Citation2003]. Ali [1983: 202, IV: 74]. Let those fight in the cause of God. Who sell the life of this world. For the hereafter. To him who fighteth, In the cause of God—Whether he is slain or gets victory—Soon shall We give him a reward of great (value). (I have compared Yusuf Ali and Laleh Bakhtiar's English translations, which are very similar.) Ali [1983: 62-63, II:154]. And say not of those who are slain in the way of God: ‘They are dead’. Nay, they are living. Though ye perceive (it) not. Ali [1983: 167]. They rejoice in the Bounty Provided by God: And with regard to those left behind then (in their bliss) The (Martyrs) glory in the fact. That on them is no fear, Nor have they (cause to) grieve [III: 170]. Mauawiya ibn Abi Sufyan (602–680 CE) was a deeply controversial figure in Islam. Because of his involvement in the Battle of Siffin against Ali (whom the Shiite Muslims believe was Mohammad's true successor), and because of the beliefs that he broke the treaty with Imam Hassan by appointing his son Yazid as ruler and was responsible for the deaths of various companions, Mauawiya has been hated and reviled by generations of Shiites. Some Sunnis also do not regard him as a caliph [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muawiyah_I]. "Imposed War” is a common term used in contemporary Iranian literature, coined by the Islamic Republic. Justification for such terminology derives from the fact that Iraq invaded Iranian territory; so the war was imposed on Iran. Another term often used in Iran for the same war is defa-e moghadas, the “holy defense.” This term converts a war defending the borders of one's country into a religious duty or responsibility. The Iran–Iraq war was framed on the tragic Shiite experience at Karbala some 1300 years earlier; hence the Iranian army represented the army of Imam Hoseyn, whereas Saddam's military was viewed as the forces of the villain Yazid. It is not uncommon to take a taxi ride through many shahid roads, squares, streets and alleys. For example, one might drive through Shohada square or Shahid Chamran and Shahid Beheshti streets. For example, see Nilipour [Citation2007]. Another book [Abbasi (Citation1386) 2006] is about the personality of Fatemeh, and her sermon defending Imam Ali‘s rights to the caliphate. It also addresses the forced entry to their private home by Ali's enemies. A further volume [Rasoli Mahalati Citation1998] covers the life of Fatemeh and her daughters; and Hossainian Qomi [Citation2000] researches Fatemeh's life too. There are numerous articles written on this subject; for example, Tabari [Citation1980], Paidar [Citation1997], Haeri [Citation1980], and Mahdi [Citation2004]. {http://campaign-for-equality.org/english.php}. The website for this organization is translated in multiple languages. It shows Iranian women's demands for equality began over a century ago but equality, especially in the law, has remained elusive to this day. In June 2006 Iranian women created a movement called the Campaign for One Million Signatures, to unify many women's rights groups that had been working separately. The campaign's goal is to collect a million signatures demanding change in Iran's discriminatory laws. An educational booklet is available discussing specific laws that have a negative effect on women's lives. {http://www.we-change.org/spip.php?article19}. Saeidi [Citation2009]; (original source, The Middle East Institute): “The establishment of several para-governmental organizations (bonyads) following the revolution of 1979 in Iran has created a large socio-economic sector. These bonyads claim to conduct a variety of activities related to social work, advisory, social, and rehabilitation services for satisfying the needs of low-income groups, improving the conditions of families of martyrs, former prisoners of war, needy rural dwellers, guardian-less households, the disabled, and the handicapped. The bonyads active in this regard include the Martyrs’ Foundation (Bonyad-e Shahid), the Imam Khomeini Relief Aid Committee, the Oppressed and Disabled Foundation, the Housing Foundation, and the 15th Khordad Foundation.” In 1994 Iran's Ayatollah Khameneyi issued a fatwa against self-mutilation. But Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani, Iraq's most prominent cleric, has issued statements that are ambiguous about the practice. Some flagellation enthusiasts rejected the pronouncements entirely or claimed they prohibited only the cutting of the scalp with swords. Others accepted the fatwa and redirected their efforts toward more socially productive acts, like conducting Blood Drives during Ashura. Over time most clerics have muted their criticism, as many Shiites’ devotion to the practice has been too strong to break. Prior to the 1978 Islamic Revolution, Mohammad-Reza, Shah of Iran, banned the practice of lamentation and flagellation in public spaces (during the month of Moharram). The People's Mujahedin of Iran (PMOI, also MEK, MKO) is a militant Islamic socialist organization that advocates the overthrow of the Islamic Republican government of Iran. Founded in 1965, the PMOI was originally devoted to armed struggle against the Shah of Iran, capitalism, and Western imperialism [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_Mujahedin_of_Iran]. Santana [Citation2009]; see too Parker [Citation2009] and Singer [Citation2009]. For this and other key terms used in this article, see Akhavi [Citation1998], Hashmi [Citation1998], Klausner [Citation1998], and Voll [Citation1998]. Additional informationNotes on contributorsFaegheh Shirazi FAEGHEH SHIRAZI has a Ph.D. from the Ohio State University and is a professor in the Department of Middle Eastern Studies at the University of Texas, Austin. Her interests are in the areas of popular religious practices, rituals and their influence on gender identity, and discourse in Muslim societies, with the main focus on Iran, Islamic veiling, material culture, textiles and clothing. As well as writing many research articles, she has edited Muslim Women in War and Crisis: From Reality to Representation [Austin: University of Texas Press, 2010]; and has written The Veil Unveiled: Hijab in Modern Culture [Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001]; and Velvet Jihad: Muslim Women's Quiet Resistance to Islamic Fundamentalism [Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2009].