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Southern Integration: The Sui‐Tang (581–907) Reach South

2004; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 66; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1111/j.1540-6563.2004.00095.x

1540-6563

Charles Holcombe,

Japanese History and Culture

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes1. Since the effective end of Han imperial unity around 184, and with the exception of a brief reunification after 280, which began to disintegrate within little more than a decade.2. See Edward H. Schafer, “The Yeh Chung Chi,”T’oung Pao, 76.4–5 (1990): 147–49.Liu Xueyao, Wu‐hu shi lun (Essays in the History of the Five [non‐Chinese peoples known as] Hu) (Taibei, 2001), 1, 9–10. Wang Mingke, Huaxia bianyuan: lishi jiyi yu zuqun rentong (The Margins of China: Historical Memory and Ethnic Identity) (Taibei, 1997), 144–45, 185, 188. See also Liu Yitang, “Qian tan Zhongguo minzu de goucheng” (A Slight Discussion of the Formation of the Chinese Nation), Zhongguo xiyu yanjiu (Taibei, 1997), 296–311.3. Mark Elvin, The Pattern of the Chinese Past: A Social and Economic Interpretation (Stanford, Calif., 1973). Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China (Chicago, Ill., 1995), 4. Herold J. Wiens, China’s March to the Tropics: A Study of the Cultural and Historical Geography of South China (Washington, D.C., 1952). Laura Hostetler, Qing Colonial Enterprise: Ethnography and Cartography in Early Modern China (Chicago, Ill., 2001). Miyakawa Hisayuki, “The Confucianization of South China,”The Confucian Persuasion, ed. by Arthur F. Wright (Stanford, Calif., 1960).4. On regional differences in the Age of Division, see He Ziquan, “Nanbeichao shiqi nan‐bei Ruxue fengshang bu tong de yuanyuan” (The Origins of Differences between Confucian Fashions in North and South in the Northern and Southern Dynasties Period), Jinian Chen Yinke xiansheng danchen bai nian xueshu lunwenji, ed. by Beijing daxue Zhongguo zhonggushi yanjiu zhongxin (1983; Beijing, 1989). Wu Chengxue, “Lun wenxue shang de nanbeipai yu nanbeizong” (On Northern and Southern Schools and Northern and Southern Sects in Literature), Zhongshan daxue xuebao (shehui kexue ban) (1991.4). Zhong Qijie, “Nanbeichao shiqi xingcheng bei qiang nan ruo jumian zhi zaixi” (A Re‐analysis of the Formation of Conditions of Northern Strength and Southern Weakness in the Northern and Southern Dynasties Period), Beifang luncong (1992.3). See also Qiu Jiurong, “Wei‐Jin Nanbeichao shiqi de ‘da yitong’ sixiang” (Ideas of “Grand Unity” in the Wei, Jin, Northern, and Southern Dynasty Period), Zhongyang minzu xuebao (1993.4).5. Arthur F. Wright, “The Formation of Sui Ideology, 581–604,” in Chinese Thought and Institutions, ed. by John K. Fairbank (Chicago, Ill., 1957); The Sui Dynasty (New York, 1978); “Sui Yang‐Ti: Personality and Stereotype,” in The Confucian Persuasion, ed. by Arthur F. Wright (Stanford, Calif., 1960). Chen Yinke, Sui‐Tang zhidu yuanyuan lüelun gao (A Draft Study of the Origins of Sui‐Tang Institutions) (1944; Taibei, 1994).6. Michael Loewe, “China’s Sense of Unity as Seen in the Early Empires,”T’oung Pao, 80.1–3 (1994): 14.For Korea and Vietnam, see Charles Holcombe, The Genesis of East Asia, 221 B.C.–A.D. 907 (Honolulu, Hi., 2001), chapters 6–7; and “Early Imperial China’s Deep South: The Viet Regions through Tang Times,”T’ang Studies, 15–16 (1997–98). Chun‐shu Chang, ed., The Making of China: Main Themes in Premodern Chinese History (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1975).7. David R. Knechtges, “Sweet‐peel Orange or Southern Gold? Regional Identity in Western Jin Literature,” in Studies in Early Medieval Chinese Literature and Cultural History, ed. Paul W. Kroll, et al. (Provo, Utah, 2003), 44–66. Nakamura Keiji, “Nanchō kokka ron” (On Southern Dynasty States), Iwanami Kōza: sekai rekishi 9; Chūka no bunretsu to saisei, 3–13 seiki (Tokyo, 1999), 211. Wang Jian, “Dong‐Jin de jianguo” (The Establishment of the Eastern Jin State), Han‐Tang shilun gao (Beijing, 1992). Contemporary observations are from Jin shu (Dynastic History of the Jin), ed. Fang Xuanling (644; Beijing, 1974), 46.1294–95, and 52.1450.8. Shishuo xinyu, jiaojian (A New Account of Tales of the World, Revised Commentary), by Liu Yiqing (403–44), ed. Xu Zhen’e (Hong Kong, 1987), 49–50. Bao pu zi (Master Embracing Simplicity), by Ge Hong (ca. 317: Taibei, 1984), wai pian 26.1b–2a. Wang Jian, 226.9. Thomas Jansen, Höfische Öffentlichkeit im frühmittelalterichen China: Debatten im Salon des Prinzen Xiao Ziliang (Freiburg, 2000), 19 note 1. Zhu Dawei, “Liang‐mo Chen‐chu haoqiang qiushuai de xingqi” (The Rise of Local Strongmen and Chieftains in Late Liang and Early Chen), Liuchao shi lun (Beijing, 1998), 209. Yao Dazhong, Nanfang de fenqi (The Rise of the South) (Taibei, 1981), 115. Chen shu (Dynastic History of the Chen), by Yao Silian (636; Beijing, 1972), 1.1. For the population balance, see Zhou Yiliang, “Nanchao jingnei zhi ge‐zhong ren ji zhengfu duidai zhi zhengce” (The Various Kinds of People within the Borders of the Southern Dynasties, and the Government’s Policies for the Treatment of Them), Wei‐Jin Nanbeichao shi lunji (1938; Beijing, 1963), 30, 39; Zhu Dawei, “Nanchao shaoshu minzu gaikuang ji qi yu Hanzu de ronghe” (The General Situation of Minority Peoples in the Southern Dynasties, and their Blending with the Han People), Zhongguo shi yanjiu (1980.1): 59.10. Wei shu (Dynastic History of the [Northern] Wei), by Wei Shou (554; Beijing, 1974), 96.2093. Chen Yinke, “Wei shu Sima Rui zhuan Jiangdong minzu tiao shizheng ji tuilun” (An Explanation of, and Inference Concerning, the Section on Ethnicities East of the River in the Biography of Sima Rui in the Wei shu), Jinming guan conggao chubian (1944; Beijing, 2001).11. Tong dian (Comprehensive Canons), by Du You (801; Beijing, 1984), 184.977; 188.1005. Shui jing zhu (Annotated Classic of Rivers), by Li Daoyuan (ca. 520; Shanghai, 1990), 37.693. Sui shu (Dynastic History of the Sui), by Wei Zheng (580–643) (Beijing, 1973), 31.887–88. Zeng Huaman, Tang‐dai Lingnan fazhan de hexinxing (The Core‐like Quality of Development in Tang Dynasty Lingnan) (Hong Kong, 1973), 55.12. Xin Tang shu (New Dynastic History of the Tang), by Ouyang Xiu, et al. (1060; Beijing, 1975), 115.4210. Nanzong dunjiao, zuishang dasheng, mohe‐banruoboluomijing; Liuzu Huineng da‐shi yu Shaozhou Dafan‐si shifa tanjing (Sudden Doctrine of the Southern School, Supreme Mahāyāna, Great Perfection of Wisdom Sūtra; Platform Sūtra Preached by the Great Teacher, the Sixth Patriarch, Huineng, at Dafan Monastery in Shaozhou [Guangdong]), by Fahai (9th century), T 48.337b. Ling‐wai dai da, jiaozhu (Answers on Behalf of [the Region] Beyond the Ridges, Revised and Annotated), by Zhou Qufei (ca. 1135–1189) (Beijing, 1999), 4.155, 159–60.13. Yao Dazhong, 188, 194. Liu Shufen, “Jiankang yu Liuchao lishi de fazhan” (Jiankang and the Development of Six Dynasties History), Liuchao de chengshi yu shehui (Taibei, 1992), 8.14. Tong dian, 182.969. Huayang guo zhi, jiaobu tuzhu (Chronicles of the States South of Mount Hua [Sichuan], Revised and Supplemented with Notes and Maps), by Chang Qu (291–361) (Shanghai, 1987), 9.483, 486 note 5. Gao Min, ed., Wei‐Jin Nanbeichao jingji shi (An Economic History of the Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties) (Shanghai, 1996), 26, 50–52, 64.15. Liu Shufen, “Jiankang and the Commercial Empire of the Southern Dynasties: Change and Continuity in Medieval Chinese Economic History,” in Culture and Power in the Reconstitution of the Chinese Realm, 200–600, ed. Scott Pearce, et al. (Cambridge, Mass., 2001), 35, 254 n.2. Taiping huanyu ji (A Record of the World in the Taiping Era [976–84]), by Yue Shi (ca. 980; Taibei, 1963), 90.675. For population distribution, see Tang Changru, Wei‐Jin Nanbeichao Sui‐Tang shi san lun: Zhongguo fengjian shehui de xingcheng he qianqi de bianhua (Three Essays on Wei‐Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasty, and Sui‐Tang History: The Formation of Chinese Feudal Society and the Transformation of the Early Period) (Wuhan, 1993), 249, 252–58, 350.16. For a common culture, see Sui shu 75.1705–06. On southern legitimacy, see Bei‐Qi shu (Dynastic History of Northern Qi), by Li Baiyao (565–648) (Beijing, 1972), 24.347; Shi tong, tongshi (Survey of History, a Thorough Interpretation), by Liu Zhiji, revised by Pu Qilong (710; Taibei, 1965), 4.12a.17. Liuchao shiji bianlei (Vestiges of the Six Dynasties, Arranged by Category), by Zhang Dunyi (1160; Taibei, 1976), 1.72–76. Quotation from Jin shu, 75.1986. Yano Chikara, “Tō‐Shin ni okeru nanbokunin tairitsu mondai: sono shakai‐teki kōsatsu” (The Question of Confrontation between Northern and Southern People in Eastern Jin: Its Social Considerations), Shigaku zasshi 77.10 (1968).18. Luoyang qielan ji (A Record of Buddhist Temples in Luoyang), by Yang Xuanzhi (ca. 550; Taibei, 1965), 2.11a. Chen shu, 24.309.19. Da‐Tang xinyu (A New Account of Great Tang), by Liu Su (807; Beijing, 1984), 10.148–49. Luoyang qielan ji, 3.4a. Xu Hui, et al., ed., Liuchao wenhua (Six Dynasties Culture) (Nanjing, 2001), 642–44. He Da’an, “Liuchao Wu‐yu de cengci” (Strata of the Six Dynasties Wu Language), Zhongyang yanjiuyuan, Lishi yuyan yanjiusuo jikan 64.4 (1993): 872.20. David B. Honey, “Sinification as Statecraft in Conquest Dynasties of China: Two Early Medieval Case Studies,”Journal of Asian History, 30.2 (1996): 115 n.1. Annette L. Juliano, et al., eds., Monks and Merchants: Silk Road Treasures from Northwest China, Gansu and Ningxia, 4th–7th Century (New York, 2001), 98–100, 102–03.21. Gao Min, Wei‐Jin Nanbeichao bingzhi yanjiu (Studies of the Military Systems of the Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties) (Zhengzhou, 1998), 176, 326. Lü Chunsheng, Bei‐Qi zhengzhi shi yanjiu: Bei‐Qi shuaiwang yuanyin zhi kaocha (Studies in Northern Qi Political History: An Examination of the Reasons for the Decline and Fall of the Northern Qi) (Taibei, 1987), 229. Bei‐Qi shu, 21.295, 50.693. Tong dian, 200.1085. Zizhi tongjian, jinzhu (Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Governance, a New Commentary), by Sima Guang (1084; Taibei, 1966), 157.701. Xia Nai (1933), “Du shi zhaji: lun Bei‐Wei bingshi, chu liu‐Yi ji Hu‐hua zhi Hanren wai, si yi you Zhongyuan Hanren zai nei” (History Notebook: On the Northern Wei Army, Aside from the Six Yi and Nomad‐ized Chinese, Seemingly also having Chinese from the Central Plain in it), Qinghua daxue xuebao: zhe‐she‐ban (2002.6): 6.22. “Rope headed” refers to the queue, a nomadic hairstyle. Jiankang shilu (Veritable Records of Jiankang), by Xu Song (756; Taibei, 1976), 16.28a–b.23. Jiankang shilu, 16.11b.24. Bei shi (History of the Northern Dynasties), by Li Yanshou (ca. 629; Beijing, 1974), 100.3343, and juan 83. For books, see Yan Zhitui (ca. 531–591), “Guan wo sheng fu” (Rhapsody in Review of My Life), Quan Sui wen, 13.4089, in Quan shanggu, Sandai, Qin, Han, Sanguo Liuchao wen, ed. Yan Kejun (19th century; Kyoto, 1981). See also Feng shi wenjian ji, jiaozhu (A Record of what Mr. Feng Heard and Saw, Revised and Annotated), by Feng Yan (ca. 800; Beijing, 1958), 2.9.25. Yoshikawa Tadao, Kōkei no ran shimatsuki: Nanchō kizoku shakai no meiun (An Account of the Circumstances of Hou Jing’s Rebellion: the Fate of Southern Dynasty Aristocratic Society) (Tokyo, 1974), 85. Sanping Chen, “A‐gan Revisited—the Tuoba’s Cultural and Political Heritage,”Journal of Asian History, 30.1 (1996): 52–55.Quotation from Song shu (Dynastic History of the [Liu‐]Song), by Shen Yue (441–513) (Beijing, 1974), 67.1774.26. Sui shu, 24.680. Dien, 42. Xia Nai, 6. Gao Min, Bingzhi yanjiu, 338. Fu Lecheng, Sui‐Tang Wu‐dai shi (A History of the Sui, Tang, and Five Dynasties) (Taibei, 1957), 2, 14. Scott Pearce, “Form and Matter: Archaizing Reform in Sixth‐Century China,”Culture and Power in the Reconstitution of the Chinese Realm, 200–600, ed. Scott Pearce, et al. (Cambridge, Mass., 2001).27. Nanchao Chen huiyao (Institutes of Southern Dynasty Chen), by Zhu Mingpan (1852–1893) (Shanghai, 1986), 257–58. Nian’er shi zhaji (Notes to Twenty‐Two Histories), by Zhao Yi (1795; Taibei, 1977), 12.259–61. Sui shu, 29.807. Bei shi, 11.414.28. Bei shi, 11.416, 11.425. Sui shu, 53.1357–58. Lü Shipeng, Bei shu shiqi de Yuenan: Zhong‐Yue guanxi shi zhi yi (Vietnam in the Period of Subordination to the North: A History of Sino‐Vietnamese Relations) (Hong Kong, 1964), 117.29. Sui shu, 2.43, 24.682, 31.876. Fozu tongji (Complete Record of the Buddha and Patriarchs), by Zhipan (1269), 39; T 49.361a–b. Bei shi, 11.415, 11.417–8, 11.422, 63.2245. Zizhi tongjian, 177.41.30. Sui shu, 1.1, 61.1470. Zhang Yupu, “Sui Yangdi yu nan‐bei wenhua jiaorong” (Emperor Yang of Sui and the Blending of Northern and Southern Culture), Beifang luncong 173 (2002.3): 23.Arthur F. Wright, The Sui Dynasty (New York, 1978), 158–59. See also Étienne Balazs, “Le nouvel empire: l’époque des Souei et des T’ang,” in Histoire et institutions de la Chine ancienne, ed. Henri Maspero, et al. (Paris, 1967), 165.31. Stanley Weinstein, “Imperial Patronage in the Formation of T’ang Buddhism,” in Perspectives on the T’ang, ed. Arthur F. Wright, et al. (New Haven, Conn., 1973), 274–91. Guoqing bai lu (A Hundred Records of Guoqing [Monastery]), by Guanding (561–632), 2, items 24 and 26, T 46.803a–804a; 3, items 87–88, T 46.815c–816a; 4, item 89, T 46.816a–b.32. See Huang Huixian, “Sui‐mo nongmin qiyi wuzhuang qianxi” (A Superficial Interpretation of the Armed Peasant Uprisings of the Late Sui), Tang shi yanjiuhui lunwenji, ed. by Zhongguo Tang shi yanjiuhui (Xi’an, 1983), 195.33. Nunome Chōfū, Zui‐Tō shi kinkyū: Tōchō seiken no keisei (Studies in Sui‐Tang History: The Formation of Tang Dynasty Political Power) (Kyoto, 1968), 196. Cen Zhongmian, Sui‐Tang shi (Sui‐Tang History) (1957; Beijing, 1982), 285–86. Wang Chengwen, “Tang‐dai ‘nan xuan’ yu Lingnan xidong haozu” (Tang Dynasty “Southern Selection” and the Powerful Families of the Streams and Grottoes in Lingnan), Zhongguo shi yanjiu (1998.1): 97.On NW orientation, see Zizhi tongjian, 192.849; David A. Graff, Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300–900 (London, 2002), 190–91.34. Graff, 160. Da‐Tang chuangye qiju zhu (Diary of the Founding of Great Tang), by Wen Daya (ca. 626; Shanghai, 1983), 2.28–29.35. Luo Xianglin, “Tang‐dai wenhua de xin renshi” (A New Recognition of Tang Dynasty Culture), Tang‐dai wenhua shi yanjiu (1943: Taibei, 1967), 13.36. Lidai qong‐Dao ji (Record of Revering the Dao throughout the Ages), by Du Guangting, Dao zang, vol 11 (884; Beijing, 1988), 2. See Stephen R. Bokenkamp, “Time After Time: Taoist Apocalyptic History and the Founding of the T’ang Dynasty,”Asia Major, 3rd series, 7.1 (1994).37. Watanabe Yoshihiro, “Sangoku jidai ni okeru ‘bungaku’ no seijiteki senyō: Rikuchō kizokusei keiseishi no shiten kara” (The Political Promotion of “Literature” in the Three Kingdoms Period: From the Point of View of the History of the Formation of the Six Dynasties Aristocratic System), Tōyōshi-kenkyū 54.3 (1995). See the example of the non‐Chinese ruler Shi Le in Jin shu 105.2735–36; Shishuo xinyu, 216. Stephen Bokenkamp, “Lu Xiujing, Buddhism, and the First Daoist Canon,” in Culture and Power in the Reconstitution of the Chinese Realm, 200–600, ed. Scott Pearce, et al. (Cambridge, Mass., 2001), 184–85. 38. Fukushima Masashi, “Ryū Chiki: seishi no tame ni” (Liu Zhiji: For the Sake of Dynastic History), Chūgoku shisōshi, ed. by Hihara Toshikuni (Tokyo, 1987), 372. Jack L. Dull, “Determining Orthodoxy: Imperial Roles,”Imperial Rulership and Cultural Change in Traditional China, ed. Frederick P. Brandauer, et al. (Seattle, Wash., 1994), 11–14. Ding Xiang Warner, A Wild Deer amid Soaring Phoenixes: the Opposition Poetics of Wang Ji (Honolulu, Hi., 2003), 25.39. Da Tang liudian (Six Canons of Great Tang) (738; Taibei, 1962), 3.65, 3.71. Da‐Tang kaiyuan li (Rituals of the Kaiyuan Reign Period [713–42] of Great Tang) (732; Beijing, 2000), 3.32. Tang lü shuyi (Annotated Tang Penal Code) (653; Taibei, 1990), 12.163. Xin Tang shu, 51.1343. Tonami Mamoru, et al., Zui‐Tō teikoku to kodai Chōsen (The Sui‐Tang Empire and Ancient Korea), Sekai no rekishi, 6 (Tokyo, 1997), 233–37. Yūki Reimon, “Sho‐Tō Bukkyō no shisōshiteki mujun to kokka kenryoku to no kōsaku” (Historical Contradictions in the Buddhist Thought of Early Tang, and its Interrelation with State Power), Tō yō bunka kenkyūjo kiyō 25 (1961): 20.40. Rong Xinjiang, Dunhuang‐xue shiba jiang (Eighteen Talks on Dunhuang Studies) (Beijing, 2001), 221. Michihata Ryōshū, “Chūgoku Bukkyō no Chūgokuteki tenkai” (The Chinese Evolution of Chinese Buddhism), Chūgoku Bukkyō shakai‐keizai shi no kenkyū (Kyoto, 1983), 254. Lan Jifu, Sui‐dai Fojiao shi shulun (An Account of Buddhist History in the Sui Dynasty) (1974; Taibei, 1993), 149–54. Tansen Sen, Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino‐Indian Relations, 600–1400 (Honolulu, Hi., 2003), 13–14, 102–03.41. Sui‐Tang jia hua (Fine Sayings of the Sui and Tang), by Liu Su (early 8th century; Beijing, 1979), 3.40. Xin Tang shu, 115.4208. Terry F. Kleeman, “The Expansion of the Wen‐Ch’ang Cult,” in Religion and Society in T’ang and Sung China, ed. Patricia Buckley Ebrey, et al. (Honolulu, Hi., 1993), 45, 60–61.42. For Jinshi, see Tang zhi yan (Collected Tang Sayings), by Wang Dingbao (ca. 955; Taibei, 1965), 1.3a; Tang guo shi bu (Supplemental History of the Tang State), by Li Zhao (ca. 825; Taibei, 1962), 3.55. For centralization, see Tong dian, 17.96c; Mao Hanguang, “Cong shizu jiguan qianyi kan Tang‐dai shizu zhi zhongyanghua” (The Centralization of Tang Dynasty Elite Families as Seen from the Movement of Elite Families’ Registered Native Places), Zhongguo zhonggu shehui shi lun (Taibei, 1988). For decentralization, see Denis Twitchett, The Birth of the Chinese Meritocracy: Bureaucrats and Examinations in T’ang China (London, 1976), 31–32; Guo Feng, Tang‐dai shizu ge’an: yi Wujun, Qinghe, Fanyang, Dunhuang Zhang shi wei zhongxin (Case Studies of Tang Dynasty Elite Families: Taking the Zhang Family of Wujun, Qinghe, Fanyang and Dunhuang as Central) (Xiamen, 1999), 179–201; Stanley Weinstein, Buddhism under the T’ang (Cambridge, 1987), 61–63.43. Song shu, 58.1590–91. Cheng Zhangcan, Shizu yu Liuchao wenxue (Elite Families and Six Dynasties Literature) (Harbin, 1998), 25–28.44. Tang da zhaoling ji (Collected Grand Edicts of Tang), ed. by Song Minqiu (1019–79), Siku quanshu zhenben shi’er ji, vol. 35 (Taibei, 1982), 105.6a–7a. For Tang local and private education, see Liu Baiji, Tang dai zhengjiao shi (A History of Governmental Teachings in the Tang Dynasty) (Taibei, 1974), 121–25.45. Tong dian, 15.84, note. Jiu Tang shu (Old Dynastic History of the Tang), by Liu Xu (945; Beijing, 1975), 166.4349. For paper, see Xu Hui, et al., 143–45. For printing, see Weng Tongwen, “Shijie shi shang zuizao de zhong‐wan‐Tang‐jian Chang’an chuban shang” (The World’s Earliest Commercial Publishers in Mid‐Late Tang Chang’an), Tang‐dai yanjiu lunji, vol. 4 (1988; Taibei, 1992), 58, 63–68; Paul Pelliot, Les débuts de l’imprimerie en Chine (Paris, 1953), 50.46. Han Changli quanji (Collected Works of Han Yu), by Han Yu (768–824) (Beijing, 1991), 21.293.47. Aritaka Iwao, Tōdai no shakai to bungei (Tang Dynasty Society and Literary Arts) (Tokyo, 1948), 283. David Pollack, The Fracture of Meaning: Japan’s Synthesis of China from the Eighth through the Eighteenth Centuries (Princeton, N.J., 1986), 4. Da‐Tang chuangye qiju zhu, 1.9.48. James L. Watson, “Rites or Beliefs? The Construction of a Unified Culture in Late Imperial China,” in China’s Quest for National Identity, ed. Lowell Dittmer, et al. (Ithaca, N.Y., 1993), 86. Yihong Pan, Son of Heaven and Heavenly Qaghan: Sui‐Tang China and its Neighbors (Bellingham, 1997), 140, 179–83. Tang huiyao (Institutes of Tang), by Wang Pu (961; Taibei, 1989), 100.1796. Antonino Forte, “Hui‐chih (fl. 676–703 A.D.), a Brahmin Born in China,”Annali (Istituto universitario orientale), 45 (1985): 123–28; and Political Propaganda and Ideology in China at the end of the Seventh Century (Napoli, 1976), 136–45. Daoxuan (596–667) had argued earlier that the true Middle Kingdom was India, in Shijia fangzhi (Sakya[muni] Gazetteer), 1; T. 51.948c–950c.49. Yuan shi changqing ji (The Works of Mr. Yuan [Zhen], Collected in the Changqing Era [821–25]), by Yuan Zhen (ca. 821; Taibei, 1965), 24.5a. For “Türkic Culture and its Influence on the Tang Dynasty,” see Lin Enxian, “Tujue wenhua ji qi dui Tang‐chao zhi yingxiang,”Tang‐dai yanjiu lunji, vol. 1 (1972; Taibei, 1992).50. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (1983; London, 1991), 44, n.21. Étienne Balazs, “The Birth of Capitalism in China,” in Chinese Civilization and Bureaucracy: Variations on a Theme, trans. H. M. Wright (1960; New Haven, Conn., 1964), 53–54. Taiping guangji (Extensive Records [Assembled during] the Taiping Era) (978; Beijing, 1981), 243.1875; Chao ye qian zai (The Whole Record of Court and Country), by Zhang Zhuo (early 8th century; Beijing, 1979), 3.75. Qiu Tiansheng, Tang‐Song biangeqi de zheng‐jing yu shehui (Political‐Economy and Society of the Tang‐Song Transitional Era) (Taibei, 1999), chapter 4. Seo Tatsuhiko, “Chūka no bunretsu to saisei” (The Breakup and Regeneration of China), Iwanami Kōza: sekai rekishi 9; Chū ka no bunretsu to saisei, 3–13 seiki (Tokyo, 1999), 18, 66–75.51. Holcombe, Genesis of East Asia, 49–51. John Fitzgerald, “The Nationless State: The Search for a Nation in Modern Chinese Nationalism,” in Chinese Nationalism, ed. Jonathan Unger (Armonk, 1996), 66–67. David Yen‐ho Wu, “The Construction of Chinese and Non‐Chinese Identities,” in The Living Tree: The Changing Meaning of Being Chinese Today, ed. Tu Wei‐ming (Stanford, Calif., 1994), 150. Fozu tongji, 36; T.49.342c. Chao ye qian zai, 5.121.52. Benjamin A. Elman, “Political, Social, and Cultural Reproduction via Civil Service Examinations in Late Imperial China,”Journal of Asian Studies 50.1 (1991): 22.For the earlier period, compare 53. Tang yu lin (Tang Forest of Conversations), by Wang Dang (fl. 1086–1110) (Shanghai, 1978), 2.35, 2.40.54. Du gongbu ji (Collected Works of Du [Fu] of the Ministry of Works), by Du Fu (712–770) (Taibei, 1965), 15.1a. Han Changli quanji, 20.286.55. Du gongbu ji, 12.3b. Han Changli quanji, 18.268. Fang Jie, “Han, Liu, dui Ru, Shi, Dao de qushe” (Han [Yu] and Liu [Zongyuan’s] Selections from Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism), Han, Liu, xinlun (Taibei, 1999), 345. Fung Yu‐lan, A Short History of Chinese Philosophy, ed. by Derk Bodde (New York, 1948), 268. Anthony Deblasi, “Striving for Completeness: Quan Deyu and the Evolution of the Tang Intellectual Mainstream,”Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 61.1 (2001): 6.56. Fozu tongji, 39; T 49.359b. Wei shu, 1.1.57. Robert M. Somers, “Time, Space, and Structure in the Consolidation of the T’ang Dynasty (AD 617–700),” in State and Society in Early Medieval China, ed. Albert E. Dien (1986; Stanford, Calif., 1990), 380–81. Xin Tang shu, 87.3721–3724.58. Zizhi tongjian, 192.867. Tang Changru, 377–79, 469, 499. Miyazaki Ichisada, Dai‐Tō teikoku: Chūgoku no chūsei (The Great Tang Empire: China’s Middle Ages), Miyazaki Ichisada zenshū, vol. 8 (1968; Tokyo, 1993), 196. Shang Ding, Zou xiang sheng Tang (Towards High Tang) (Beijing, 1994), 23–24, 60. Li Hao, Tang‐dai Guanzhong shizu yu wenxue (Tang Dynasty Shaanxi Elite Families and Literature) (Taibei, 1999), 133. Da‐Tang xinyu, 8.117. Howard J. Wechsler, Mirror to the Son of Heaven: Wei Cheng at the Court of T’ang T’ai‐tsung (New Haven, Conn., 1974), 93.59. Jin shu, 52.1450. The principal compiler of the Jin shu was “one of the three most eminent ministers” of his day (Warner, A Wild Deer, 68). For a comparable policy‐making application, see Michael C. Rogers, “The Myth of the Battle of the Fei River (A.D. 383),”T’oung Pao, 54.1–3 (1968).60. Shi shi (Poetic Styles), by Jiaoran (8th century; Beijing, 1985), 4.37. Gu Xiangming, “Tang‐dai Taihu diqu guan‐xue kaoxi” (An Analysis of Official Schools in the Lake Tai Region during the Tang Dynasty), Linyi shifan xueyuan xuebao (2003.1): 53–54.Nishiwaki Tsuneki, Tō‐dai no shisō to bunka (Tang Dynasty Thought and Culture) (Tokyo, 2000), 160.61. It is instructive to compare these developments in China with the permanent exclusion of colonial American “creole” elites from the heights of European metropolitan office‐holding, which helped spark the New World wars of independence (1776–1838) that Benedict Anderson regards as the first wave of modern nationalism. Anderson, 55–65. Hubert Seiwert, “Religion und kulturelle Integration in China. Die Sinisierung Fujians und die Integration der chinesischen Nationalkultur,”Saeculum, 38 (1987). Hans Bielenstein, “The Chinese Colonization of Fukien until the End of T’ang,” in Studia Serica Berhard Karlgren Dedicata, ed. Søren Egerod, et al. (Copenhagen, 1959), 110–11. Han changli quanji, 22.309. Xin Tang shu, 203.5786–87. Tang zhi yan, 15.4b–5a. Seo Tatsuhiko, 68–69. John W. Chaffee, The Thorny Gates of Learning in Sung China: A Social History of Examinations (1985; Albany, N.Y., 1995), 119, 130–35, 148–53.62. Kawakatsu Yoshio, “La décadence de l’aristocratie chinoise sous les Dynasties du Sud,”Acta Asiatica, 21 (1971): 37–38.Qiu Tiansheng, 115. Feng shi wenjian ji, 6.46. Tang Changru, 260, 358, 495–501.63. Du gongbu ji, 3.7b–8a, 7.9b. Xin Tang shu 165.5076. Han Changli quanji, 19.275. Fanchuan wenji (Collected Writings from Fan River [Shaanxi]), by Du Mu (803–853) (Shanghai, 1978), 16.249. See also Tang guo shi bu, 3.62.64. Han Changli quanji, 3.54.65. Chao ye qian zai, 4.89.66. Liu Binke wenji (Collected Writings of Liu Yuxi), by Liu Yuxi (772–842) (Taibei, 1968), 24.189. Fanchuan wenji, 4.70.67. Xin Tang shu, 93.3822–24.68. Wu‐dai shi (‐ji) ([New] Historical [Records] of the Five Dynasties), by Ouyang Xiu (1053; Hubei, 1872), 65.1b–2a, 62.2b. Wei Liangtao, “Nan‐Tang xianzhu Li Bian pingshuo” (Commentary on the First Ruler of Southern Tang, Li Bian [889–943]), Nanjing daxue xuebao: zhexue renwen sheke ban (2002.1).69. For a map of “China proper,” see Evelyn S. Rawski, The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions (Berkeley, Calif., 1998), xiii. Edward Friedman, “Reconstructing China’s National Identity: A Southern Alternative to Mao‐Era Anti‐Imperialist Nationalism,”The Journal of Asian Studies, 53.1 (1994): 86–87; and “A Failed Chinese Modernity,” in National Identity and Democratic Prospects in Socialist China (1993; Armonk, 1995), especially 67–68. Henrietta Harrison, China: Inventing the Nation (London and New York, 2001), 29–31, 138–39, 193–94.70. Holcombe, Genesis of East Asia, 145–64; and “Early Imperial China’s Deep South.”Additional informationNotes on contributorsCharles W. HolcombeCharles W. Holcombe is a professor of history at the University of Northern Iowa. This project was supported by a Professional Development Assignment from the University of Northern Iowa, and benefited from generous advice by Chun-shu Chang, Robert Dise, and Reinier Hesselink.