To the Shores of Tripoli: America, Qaddafi, and Libyan Revolution 1969–89
2012; Routledge; Volume: 35; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/07075332.2012.742448
ISSN1949-6540
Autores Tópico(s)Global Peace and Security Dynamics
ResumoAbstract On 1 September 1969, Colonel Muammar Qaddafi seized power in Libya, abolishing a pro-Western monarchy and launching a revolution that combined elements of Nasserism and Islamic radicalism. American policymakers quickly came to regard the Libyan revolution as anathema after Qaddafi expropriated U.S. oil companies and forced the Pentagon to relinquish its air base outside Tripoli. Misinterpreting the new regime's increasingly radical nationalism as evidence of Soviet subversion and failing to appreciate the broad appeal of resurgent Islam, the Nixon and Ford administrations froze arms sales to Libya and provided covert support for anti-Qaddafi forces. After Jimmy Carter's bid to improve relations with Libya backfired, tensions escalated dramatically during the 1980s, when Ronald Reagan branded Qaddafi as a terrorist and a Soviet stooge and unleashed the Sixth Fleet and the CIA in an unsuccessful bid to effect regime change in Libya that was punctuated by the U.S. air raid on Tripoli in April 1986. Qaddafi's erratic behavior and his supersized ego, of course, always made dealing with him a diplomatic nightmare, but the blend of covert action and gunboat diplomacy that Nixon preferred and that Reagan perfected only made a bad situation worse. Keywords: Arab NationalismCovert ActionLibyaMiddle EastPetroleum Notes 1. U.S. relations with Libya have received little attention from scholars, in part because until quite recently very little documentation has been available. For three early accounts written by journalists sympathetic to Qaddafi, see P. Seale and M. McConville, The Hilton Assignment (New York, 1973); R. First, Libya: The Elusive Revolution (Middlesex, 1974); and J. K. Cooley, Libyan Sandstorm (New York, 1982). Libya's clashes with the Reagan administration during the 1980s generated a spate of anti-Qaddafi accounts, including P. E. Haley, Qaddafi and the United States since 1969 (Westport, CT, 1984); M. Sicker, The Making of a Pariah State: The Adventurist Politics of Muammar Qaddafi (Westport, CT, 1987); R. B. St. John, Qaddafi's World Design: Libyan Foreign Policy, 1969–1987 (London, 1987); and B. L. Davis, Qaddafi, Terrorism, and the Origins of the U.S. Attack on Libya (New York, 1990). For a more even-handed account by an exiled Libyan diplomat, see M. O. El-Kikhia, Libya's Qaddafi: The Politics of Contradiction (Gainesville, 1997). The best overview is R. B. St. John, Libya and the United States: Two Centuries of Strife (Philadelphia, 2002), which is more balanced than the author's earlier book and draws on archival materials declassified during the 1990s. 2. On the Italian conquest of Libya and Mukhtar's resistance, see First, Libya: The Elusive Revolution, 45–55; Cooley, Libyan Sandstorm, 30–4; and A. Abdullatif Ahmida, The Making of Modern Libya: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance, 1830–1932 (Albany, NY, 1994), 103–40. 3. Stimson memcon, 9 July 1931, U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1931, 3 vols. (Washington, DC, 1946), i. 542. (Hereafter FRUS for the appropriate year and volume). 4. On Italian empire-building during the 1930s, see C. G. Segrè, Fourth Shore: The Italian Colonization of Libya (Chicago, 1974), 82–111. On Mussolini's policies before and during the Second World War, see D. Vandewalle, A History of Modern Libya (New York, 2006), 24–42. 5. On Libya's complex transition to independence, see W. R. Louis, The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–1951: Arab Nationalism, the United States, and Postwar Imperialism (New York, 1984), 265–306; and St. John, Libya and the United States, 37–56. 6. On Idris, Islam, and Libyan national identity during the 1950s, see W. H. Lewis and R. Gordon, 'Libya after Two Years of Independence', Middle East Journal, viii, no. 1 (1954), 42–3; and L. Anderson, 'Religion and State: Libya', Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, cdlxxxiii (1986), 68–9. 7. For the 'atomic bombing' quote, see John Foster Dulles testimony, 3 June 1953, U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Executive Sessions of the Committee on Foreign Relations (Historical Series). 20 vols. (Washington, DC, 1989), v. 437–8. On broader U.S. military and economic objectives in Libya during the 1950s, see D. Little, American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East since 1945 (Chapel Hill, 2008), 206–9; and St. John, Libya and the United States, 57–77. 8. NSC 6004/1, 'U.S. Policy toward Libya', 15 Mar. 1960, FRUS 1958–60, xiii. 740–9. 9. St. John, Libya & the United States, 78–80; Komer to JFK, 28 Sept. 1963, FRUS 1961–63, xxi. 157–8. 10. William Brubeck memcon, 3 Apr. 1964, FRUS 1964–68, xxiv. 80–1. 11. Newsom Oral History Interview, 15 Mar. 1995, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, 'Frontline Diplomacy', http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/diplomacy/index.html. (Hereafter ADST, 'Frontline Diplomacy'). 12. DOS Bureau of Intelligence and Research, 'North Africa Eight Weeks after the Arab-Israeli Conflict', 3 Aug. 1967, FRUS 1964–68, xxiv. 13–15. 13. 'Record of U.S./U.K. Talks on the Middle East—Libya', [Kew, Records of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, British National Archives], 10 Aug. 1967, FCO 17/37, vol. 62399. 14. Newsom memcon, 30 Aug. 1967, FRUS 1964–68, xxiv. 139–42. 15. Newsom Oral History Interview, 15 Mar. 1995, ADST, 'Frontline Diplomacy'. 16. Rostow to LBJ, 4 Sept. 1968, FRUS 1964–68, xxiv. 147–8; St. John, Libya & the United States, 82–3. 17. First, Libya: The Elusive Revolution, 99–113; Newsom to DOS, 20 Feb. 1969, National Archives, College Park, MD, 'Pol 1 Libya-US', State Department Alpha-Numeric File, Record Group 59 (Hereafter RG59 NA); Newsom to Root (DOS), 27 Mar. 1969, FRUS 1969–76, vol. E-5, Pt. 2 (Documents on North Africa 1969-72), Chap 3: Libya, item 36, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/nixon/e5part2/c22503.htm. (Hereafter FRUS 1969–76, E-5: 2, Libya, with appropriate item number.) 18. Lane Oral History Interview, 27 Aug. 1990, and Newsom Oral History Interview, 15 Mar. 1995, ADST, 'Frontline Diplomacy'. 19. On Qaddafi's background, see Seale and McConville, Hilton Assignment, 45–57; Cooley, Libyan Sandstorm, 14–17; and El-Kikhia, Libya's Qaddafi, 38–40. 20. Qaddafi quoted in Cooley, Libyan Sandstorm, 3–5. 21. For a contemporary account describing possible CIA involvement, see Seale and McConville, Hilton Assignment, 174–5. When asked many years later whether 'the CIA or the military attachés were giving you any forebodings of the Qadhafi coup,' however, former Ambassador David Newsom replied: 'The Agency had reports of a group that was forming, called the Black Boots … that was centered around an officer by the name of Abd al Aziz Shalhi', but they had been 'preempted by the Qadhafi group on which we had no information.' (Newsom Oral History Interview, 15 Mar. 1995, ADST, 'Frontline Diplomacy.') George Lane, who oversaw the consulate in Benghazi, likewise confirmed that the revolutionaries were entirely unknown to U.S. officials and recalled that his own first encounter with Libya's new leader had come on the day of the coup outside the radio station, where Qaddafi 'was out directing traffic, and of course, keeping an eye what was going on' while his new RCC plotted strategy inside. (Lane Oral History Interview, 27 Aug. 1990, ADST, 'Frontline Diplomacy.') For more on the 'Black Boots', see Theodore Eliot (DOS) to Kissinger, 'The Fall of the Libyan Monarchy', 9 Sept. 1969, 'Pol 23-9 Libya', State Department Alpha-Numeric File, RG59 NA. 22. Eliot to Kissinger, 'The Fall of the Libyan Monarchy', 9 Sept. 1969, 'Pol 23–9 Libya', State Department Alpha-Numeric File, RG59 NA. 23. CIA, Office of National Estimates, 'Implications of the Libyan Coup: Some Initial Thoughts', 16 Sept. 1969, FRUS 1969–76, E-5: 2, Libya, item 39. 24. Stewart-Nixon-Kissinger memcon, 18 Sept. 1969, 'Secretary of State's Visit to the US 1969', Kew, Surrey, British National Archives, Records of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office since 1967, File 1426, FCO 7 (hereafter FCO 7 BNA for the appropriate file). 25. Cooley, Libyan Sandstorm, 86–7; Seale and McConville, Hilton Assignment, 43–4. 26. Acting Secretary of State Elliott Richardson to Nixon, 10 Oct. 1969, and DOS to Palmer, tel. 19 Nov. 1969, 'Pol-Libya-US', State Department Alpha-Numeric File, RG59 NA; Palmer to DOS, tel. 30 Oct. 1969, FRUS 1969–76, E-5: 2, Libya, item 42. 27. Behr and Saunders to Kissinger, 20 Nov. 1969, ibid., item 44. 28. WSAG minutes, 24 Nov. 1969, ibid., item 45. 29. Palmer to DOS, tels. 11 and 13 Dec. 1969, ibid., items 46 and 48. Many years later, George Lane confirmed that U.S. intelligence had in fact maintained 'very close relations' with King Idris: 'I think frankly our CIA people were declared to the Libyan [royal] government, … which, of course, caused all sorts of consternation when the revolution took place and Qadhafi's people took over control of the files.' Lane, Oral History Interview, 27 Aug. 1990, ADST, 'Frontline Diplomacy.' 30. Saunders to Kissinger, 11 Dec. 1969, FRUS 1969–76, E-5: 2, Libya, item 47. 31. David Newsom to Under-Secretary of State Alexis Johnson, 23 Dec. 1969, and CIA, 'Short-Term Prospects for Libya', 30 Dec. 1969, ibid., items 49 and 50. 32. Palmer to DOS, tel. 25 Jan. 1970; Kissinger to Nixon, n.d. (early Feb. 1970), ibid., items 51 and 52. 33. CIA, Directorate of Intelligence, 'An Intelligence Assessment of Libya', 13 Feb. 1970, ibid., item 53. 34. On Qaddafi's use of Islam during the early 1970s, see J. Roumani, 'From Republic to Jamahiriya: Libya's Search for Political Community', Middle East Journal, xxxvii, no. 2 (1983), 166–7. 35. Qaddafi quoted in A. Magid Farid, Nasser: The Final Years (London, 1994). Farid served as secretary general of the Egyptian presidency and his book includes minutes of Nasser's meetings with many Arab leaders during the late 1960s. 36. Kissinger to Nixon, 'Options for Possible [Covert] Action in Libya', 20 Mar. 1970. FRUS 1969–76, E-5: 2, Libya, item 54. 37. Palmer to DOS, 13 Apr. 1970, ibid., item 55. 38. George Denney (INR) to Rogers, 'Libya: Will the Government Move Against the Oil Companies?' 27 May 1970, ibid., item 58. For more on Qaddafi and foreign oil firms, see St. John, Libya & the United States, 102–6. 39. Minutes of NSC Meeting, 17 June 1970, 'NSC Meeting Minutes 1970 (2 of 3)', Richard Nixon Presidential Project, National Archives, College Park, MD, box H-109. 40. CIA, 'Libyan Arms Supplies since the 1969 Revolution', 31 July 1970, FRUS 1969–76, E-5: 2, Libya, item 63. 41. Rogers to Nixon, 5 Aug. 1970, ibid., item 64. 42. Kissinger to Nixon, 12 Aug. 1970, and minutes of the [40] Committee Meeting, 19 Aug. 1970, ibid., items 65 and 66. 43. Johnson to Karamessines, 20 Aug. 1970, and Hoskinson to Kissinger, 28 Aug. 1970, ibid., items 67 and 68. 44. On Qaddafi's pan-Arabism, see St. John, Libya & the United States, 98–102. CIA, Office of National Estimates, 'The Arab World After Nasser', 17 Feb. 1971, CIA Records Search Tool (CREST), National Archives, College Park, MD, RDP79R00967A000300020009-8, (Hereafter CREST NA). 45. Palmer to DOS, tel. 24 Feb. 1971, FRUS 1969–76, E-5: 2, Libya, item 71. 46. Critchfield to Parmenter, 23 Feb. 1971 and Kissinger to Nixon, 27 Mar. 1971, ibid., items 70 and 73. Jalloud quoted in D. Blundy and A. Lycett, Qaddafi and the Libyan Revolution, (New York, 1987), 66–7. Six months earlier during a skull session on Middle East oil, Lord Carrington, the British Foreign Secretary, had complained to his U.S. counterpart, William Rogers, that 'it was unfortunate that inexperienced and extremist Governments like the Libyan Government could in effect hold the world up to ransom.' Rogers agreed but concluded that there was little the big U.S. and U.K. multinationals could do because 'the small "independent" operators had sold the pass.' Home-Carrington-Rogers memcon, 3 Oct. 1970, 'Records of Conversations of President Nixon's Visit, Sept.-Oct. 1970, Folder 1,' File 1814, FCO 7 BNA. 47. CIA, National Intelligence Estimate 36.5-71, 'Libya', 30 Apr. 1971, FRUS 1969–76, E-5: 2, Libya, item 74. 48. G. Joffe, 'Islamic Opposition in Libya', Third World Quarterly, x, no. 2 (1988), 622–3; and St. John, Libya and the United States, 95–8. 49. CIA, 'Status Report on Libya', 17 May 1971, ibid., item 76. 50. Saunders to Kissinger, 17 May 1971; NSC, 'Libya: Policy Planning Paper', n.d. (16 June 1971), ibid., items 77 and 78. For more on the activities of Omar Shalhi, see Seale and McConville, Hilton Assignment, 174–5. 51. Lane Oral History Interview, 27 Aug. 1990, ADST, 'Frontline Diplomacy;' Moore (DOS) to Richardson, 7 Dec. 1971, FRUS 1969–76, E-5: 2, Libya, item 80. 52. G. Tremlett, Gadaffi: The Desert Mystic (New York, 1993), 151–2; CIA, SNIE 61-1-72, 'Prospects for the Moroccan Monarchy', 14 Sept. 1972, FRUS 1969–76, Vol. E-5, Pt. 2 (Documents on North Africa 1969–72), ch. 4: Morocco, item 131, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/nixon/e5part2/c22504.htm. 53. Dean to Haig, 3 Feb. 1972, FRUS 1969–76, E-5: 2, Libya, item 85. 54. Hoskinson to Kissinger, 1 Sept. 1972, ibid., item 92. 55. Helms quoted in Saunders to Kissinger, 9 Aug. 1972, ibid., item 91. 56. Palmer to State Department, tel. 30 Oct. 1972, ibid, item 94. 57. 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Sisco to Embassy Kabul, tel. 11 June 1974, and Stein (Tripoli) to DOS, tel. 25 July 1974, 'State Department Electronic Telegrams 1974', RG59 NA, AAD. 63. Scowcroft to John O. Marsh (White House), 21 Dec. 1974, G[erald] R. F[ord Presidential] L[ibrary, Ann Arbor, Michigan], Presidential Country Files – Africa 1974–77, National Security Adviser, 'Libya', box 3. 64. Stein to DOS, tel. 25 Feb. 1975, 'State Department Electronic Telegrams 1975', RG59 NA, AAD. 65. Stein to DOS, tel. 12 June 1975, ibid. 66. Ford-Kissinger memcon, 5 May 1975, 'Ford, Kissinger, May 5, 1975', GRFL, Memoranda of Conversations, National Security Adviser, box 11. For more on Nixon, the Shah, and contingency plans regarding Saudi Arabia, see P. Tyler, A World of Trouble: The White House and the Middle East–from the Cold War to the War on Terror (New York, 2009), 125, 148. 67. On Iranian intervention in Oman to quell the Dhofar rebellion, see A. Saikal, The Rise and Fall of the Shah (Princeton, 1980), 178–9; and J. 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(late Sept. 1978), U.S. Department of State, 'Other FOIA Released Documents', http://foia.state.gov/documents/foiadocs/27bf.PDF. (Hereafter DOS, 'Other FOIA', with PDF document number.) 73. Goulden, Death Merchant, 184–5; Turner, 'DCI Notes', 31 Oct. 1978, RDP81B00401R002800020075-1, CREST NA. 74. Billy Carter testimony, 21 Aug. 1980, U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee to Investigate Individuals Representing the Interests of Foreign Governments, Inquiry into the Matter of Billy Carter and Libya. 3 vols. (Washington D, 1981), i. 504–7, 510. 75. Cooley, Libyan Sandstorm, 252–64; St. John, Libya and the United States, 110–12. 76. For a discussion of Qaddafi's efforts to blend Islam and Arab nationalism into a 'populist' ideology, see Joffe, 'Islamic Opposition in Libya', 630–1; and M. K. Deeb and M. J. Deeb, Libya since the Revolution: Aspects of Social and Political Development (New York, 1982), 101–4. 77. On the Libyan attack on the U.S. Embassy, see Cooley, Libyan Sandstorm, 260–2; St. John, Libya and the United States, 112–15; and Y. Ronen, Qaddafi's Libya in World Politics (Boulder, CO, 2008), 18–19. 78. CIA, 'US Relations with the Radical Arabs', 4 Dec. 1979, attached to Turner to Carter, 11 Dec. 1979, CREST NA, RDP81B00401R000600040006-9 and -40007-8. For a discussion of the attack on the U.S. embassy in Tripoli, see St. John, Libya and the United States, 112–15. 79. Newsom testimony, 4 Aug. 1980, Senate Subcommittee to Investigate Individuals Representing the Interests of Foreign Governments, Inquiry into the Matter of Billy Carter and Libya, i. 7–8, 15. 80. CIA, Special National Intelligence Estimate 36.5-81, 'Libya: Aims and Vulnerabilities', 30 Jan. 1981, CIA Office of Privacy Coordination, Washington, DC. For an excellent overview of the showdown between 'Reagan Agonistes' and Muammar Qaddafi during the early 1980s, see St. John, Libya and the United States, 121–51. 81. On the CIA video, see S. M. Hersh, 'Target Qaddafi', New York Times Magazine (22 Feb. 1987), 22–4. For the Reagan quip, see Richard Reeves, President Reagan: The Triumph of Imagination (New York, 2005), 319. 82. L. Paul Bremer (DOS) to Participants of SIG/Libya, 11 Mar. 1981, and Kemp to National Security Adviser Richard V. Allen, 24 Mar. 1981, 'Libya SIG 81-3-18', R[onald] R[Eagan] P[residential] L[ibrary, Simi Valley, CA], Near East South Asia Affairs, NSC Records, box 91144. 83. R. Reagan, An American Life (New York, 1990), 280–1. 84. 'U.S. Policy Toward Libya', n.d., attached to Kemp to Allen, 14 May 1981, and Allen, 'NSC Agenda', 15 May 1981, 'Libya NSC 81-5-15', RRL, Near East South Asia Affairs, NSC Records, box 91144. 85. R. Tanter, Rogue Regimes: Terrorism and Proliferation (New York, 1999), 130–1. 86. Reagan, An American Life, 280–1. 87. Minutes of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Libya, 7 July 1981; NSC, 'Extraction of U.S. Citizens', n.d. (July 1981); and Allen to Reagan, 'Libya Increases Role in Caribbean Basin', 24 July 1981, all in 'Libya 1981 (3 of 4)', RRL, Geoffrey Kemp Files, Box 90495. 88. NSC minutes, 31 July 1981, 'NSC 018', RRL, Executive Secretariat Series, NSC Meeting Files, box 91282. 89. Cooley, Libyan Sandstorm, 264–7. 90. Interagency Intelligence Assessment, 10 Aug. 1981, attached to Casey (DCI) to Reagan, 10 Aug. 1981, 'Libya 1981 (3 of 4)', RRL, Geoffrey Kemp Files, box 90495. 91. Wettering and Shoemaker (NSC), 'Somalia–A Crying Need', 31 Aug. 1981, 'Libya 1981 (3 of 4)', RRL, Geoffrey Kemp Files, box 90495. 92. Entry for 6 Aug. to 3 Sept. 1981. (Reagan spent the month of August at the summer White House in southern California and did not update his diary daily). On 15 January 1986, the President had this to say about how to spell Qaddafi: 'The press has a story today about the variety of spellings they are using of his name. I notice I use the last one I've read so this book has it a dozen ways.' R. Reagan, The Reagan Diaries, ed. Douglas Brinkley (New York, 2007), 35–6, 383. 93. Entry for 6 Oct. 1981, Reagan, Reagan Diaries, 42. 94. Ledeen to State Department Counselor Robert McFarlane, 27 Oct. 1981, 'Libya 1981 (1 of 4)', RRL, Geoffrey Kemp Files, box 90495. McFarlane passed a copy of Ledeen's report along to Kemp, the chief White House Middle East expert, that same day. Some State Department officials believed that Ledeen, with help from CIA director William Casey, was exaggerating the Libyan threat and 'feeding the disinformation into the system' to build support for a more muscular anti-Qaddafi policy. See Hersh, 'Target Qaddafi', 24–6. 95. Raymond Tanter to Allen, 13 Nov. 1981; Haig to Reagan, 17 Nov. 1981; and Allen to Reagan, n.d. (17 Nov. 1981), 'Libya 1981 (1 of 4)', RRL Geoffrey Kemp Files, box 90495. 96. Entry for 8 Dec. 1981, Reagan, Reagan Diaries, 53–4. 97. 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CIA, Directorate of Intelligence, 'Libya: Qadhafi's Prospects for Survival', 5 Aug. 1985, CIA FOIA Electronic Reading Room, http://www.foia.cia.gov. For more details on CIA plans for Operations Tulip and Rose, see Woodward, Veil, 411–12. 112. On Qaddafi's support for anti-U.S. terrorism, see CIA, 'State Support for International Terrorism, 1985', May 1986, 'Terrorism', item 0857, DNSA. 113. Entry for 7 Jan. 1986, Reagan, Reagan Diaries, 381. 114. Reagan quoted in Naftali, Blind Spot, 184. 115. NSDD 205, 'Acting Against Libyan Support of International Terrorism', 8 Jan. 1986, 'NSDD 201-10', RRL, National Security Decision Directives, box 2. 116. CIA, 'Qadhafi's Vulnerabilities', 28 Jan. 1986, 'Terrorism', item 0842, DNSA. 117. Kelso quoted in Martin and Walcott, Best Laid Plans, 278. 118. Entries for 13, 23, 24, and 25 Mar. 1986, Reagan, Reagan Diaries, 398, 401. 119. For 'the mad dog of the Middle East' remark, see Reagan Press Conference, 9 Apr. 1986, Public Papers of the Presidents, Ronald Reagan, 1986. 2 vols. (Washington, DC, 1987), i. 439. On targeting options, see entry for 7 Apr. 1986, Reagan, Reagan Diaries 402–3. 120. Deputy NSC adviser John Poindexter to Reagan, 10 Apr, 1986, Declassified Documents Reference System, item CK3100539271, Gale Virtual Reference Library, www.gale.cengage.com/ddrs. 121. Quoted in Hersh, 'Target Qaddafi', 20. 122. Entry for 16 Apr. 1986, Reagan, Reagan Diaries, 405. For more details on Operation El Dorado Canyon, see P. Huchthausen, America's Splendid Little Wars: A Short History of U.S. Military Engagements 1975–2000 (New York, 2003), 86–96. 123. CIA, Directorate of Intelligence, 'State Support for International Terrorism, 1985', May 1986, 'Terrorism', item 0857, DNSA. For more on the Libyan reaction to Operation El Dorado Canyon, see St. John, Libya & the United States, 139–46. 124. CIA, 'Libya: Qadhafi's Political Position since the Airstrike', 17 July 1986, CIA FOIA Electronic Reading Room, http://www.foia.cia.gov. 125. Poindexter, Reagan, and Shultz all quoted in Woodward, Veil, 471–2, 474. 126. G. P. Shultz, Turmoil and Triumph: My Years as Secretary of State (New York, 1993), 687. 127. Qaddafi quoted in St. John, Libya and the United States, 139. 128. Entry for 14 Sept. 1987, Reagan, Reagan Diaries, 530. 129. DOS cirtel. 384633, 29 Nov. 1988, DOS, 'Other FOIA,' http://foia.state.gov/documents/foiadocs/29cc.PDF. 130. NSDD 322, 'U.S. Interests and Policy in Chad', 14 Dec. 1988, 'NSDD 322-30', RRL, National Security Decision Directives, box 2. 131. On the links between Reagan's anti-Qaddafi policies and Pan Am 103, see Naftali, Blind Spot, 219–21. 132. D. Sammut, 'Libya and the Islamic Challenge,' World Today, l, no. 10 (Oct. 1994), 198–200. 133. Entry for 8 Jan. 1986, Reagan, Reagan Diaries, 382. 134. C. R. Mark (Congressional Research Service), 'CRS Issue Brief 93109: Libya', updated 19 Dec. 1996, http://www.fas.org/man/crs/93-109.htm#most; J. Prados, Safe for Democracy: The Secret Wars of the CIA (Chicago, 2006), 581. For more details on the 1990s, see St. John, Libya and the United States, 154–93. 135. B. Lewis, 'The Roots of Muslim Rage', Atlantic Monthly (Sept. 1990), 47–60; S. P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York, 1996), 239–40. 136. E. Lichtblau, D. Rohde, and J. Risen, 'Shady Dealings Helped Qaddafi Build Fortune and Regime,' New York Times, 24 Mar. 2011. 137. Feltman quoted in Rod Nordland and David Kirkpatrick, 'Islamists' Growing Sway Raises Questions for Libya', New York Times, 14 Sept. 2011. For more on the connections between the anti-Qaddafi rebels and the ongoing pan-Islamic jihads in Iraq and Afghanistan, see Jon Lee Anderson, 'Sons of the Revolution', New Yorker, 9 May 2011, 46–8. For a first-hand report on political conditions in post-Qaddafi Libya, see R. Worth, 'Qaddafi's Never-Neverland', New York Times Magazine, 25 Sept. 2011, 26–33, 44.
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