Nationalist narratives, violence between neighbours and ethnic cleansing in Bosnia-Hercegovina: a case of cognitive dissonance?
2006; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 8; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/14623520600950013
ISSN1469-9494
Autores Tópico(s)Balkans: History, Politics, Society
ResumoClick to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1 Cognitive dissonance refers to the conflict produced by simultaneously holding two sharply conflicting ideas or by acting in a way that contradicts one's strongly held beliefs. For a use of the term in the study of mass killing, see William D. Rubinstein, Genocide (Harlow: Longman, 2004), p 261. See also Benjamin Lieberman, Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2006), pp 312–313. 2 John Mueller, “The banality of ‘ethnic war,’” International Security, Vol 25, No 1, 2000, p 42. 3 Stacy Sullivan, “Milošević's willing executioners, “The New Republic, Vol 220, No 19, May 10, 1999, pp 26–35. 4 Jusuf Kadrič, Brčko Genocide and Testimony (Sarajevo: Institute for the Research of Crimes against Humanity and International Law, 1999), pp 85–86. 5 Ibid, pp 72, 103, 125. 6 Washington Post, August 22, 1992. 7 The Observer, February 21, 1993. 8 International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Krnojelac (IT-97-25) “Foča,” 13 March 2001, 9 Rezak Hukanović, The Tenth Circle of Hell: A Memoir of Life in the Death Camps of Bosnia, Colleen London and Midhat Ridjanović, trans., Ammiel Alcalay, ed. (New York: Basic Books, 1993), pp 15, 63. See also Isabelle Wesselingh and Arnaud Vaulerin, Raw Memory: Prijedor, an “Ethnic Cleansing Laboratory,” John Howe, trans. (London: Saqi Books/The Bosnian Institute, 2005), pp 76–77. 10 Financial Times, November 10, 1992. 11 Elizabeth Neuffer, The Key to My Neighbor's House: Seeking Justice in Bosnia and Rwanda (New York: Picador, 2001), p 36. 12 Mart Bax, “Planned policy or primitive Balkanism? A local contribution to the ethnography of the war in Bosnia-Hercegovina,” Ethnos, Vol 65, No 3, 2000, pp 318, 323–330. 13 “Let's kill the Muslims!,” Newsweek, November 8, 1993, p 48. 14 Hukanović, op cit, pp 2–3. 15 Lynne Jones, Then They Started Shooting: Growing up in Wartime Bosnia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), p 80. 16 Jasmina Dervišević-Česić, The River Runs Salt, Runs Sweet: A Memoir of Višegrad, Bosnia, as told to Joanna Vogel and Bruce Holland Rogers (Eugene, OR: Panisphere, 1994), p 37. 17 Tone Bringa, Being Muslim the Bosnian Way: Identity and Community in a Central Bosnian Village (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp 67–73. 18 Svetlana Broz, Good People in an Evil Time: Portraits of Complicity and Resistance in the Bosnian War, Ellen Elias-Bursać, trans., Laurie Kain Hart, ed. (New York: Other Press, 2004), p 262. 19 Elvira Simić, The Cry of Bosnia: A Personal Diary of the Bosnian War, Foreword by Martin Bell (London: Genie Quest, 1998), p 41. 20 Neuffer, op cit, pp 184–185; and ICTY, Tadic (IT-94-1) “Prijedor,” June 25, 1996 < http://www.un.org/icty/transe1/960625IT.htm>. 21 Anthony Oberschall, “The manipulation of ethnicity: from ethnic cooperation to violence and war in Yugoslavia,” Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol 23, No 6, 2000, pp 989–990. 22 Ibid. 23 Piotr Wróbel, “Double memory: Poles and Jews after the Holocaust,” East European Politics and Societies, Vol 11, No 3, 1997, pp 560–574. 24 Ivan Čolović, Politics of Identity in Serbia: Essays in Political Anthropology, Celia Hawkesworth, trans. (New York: New York University Press, 2002), p 5. 25 As Florian Bieber notes, myths in a “nationalist conception of time” blur the “distinction between the past and the present …” See idem, “Nationalist mobilization and stories of Serb suffering: the Kosovo myth from 600th anniversary to the present,” Rethinking History, Vol 6, No 1, 2002, pp 97–98. 26 Mueller, op cit. 27 For a discussion of victimization, see Omer Bartov, “Defining enemies, making victims: Germans, Jews, and the Holocaust,” American Historical Review, Vol 103, No 3, 1998, pp 771–816. 28 This term was created by the historian Halil Berktay. 29 Roger D. Petersen, Understanding Violence: Fear, Hatred, and Resentment in Twentieth-Century Eastern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), pp 55–63. 30 On the problem of identifying why any individual joins in a massacre, see Jacques Semelin, “Toward a vocabulary of massacre and genocide,” Journal of Genocide Research, Vol 5, No 2, 2003, pp 193–210. 31 Norman Naimark, Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth Century Europe (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), pp 8, 190. Naimark's study fits into a broader literature on gardening states, population policies, and state-centred interpretations of genocide. On gardening states, see Amir Weiner, ed., Landscaping the Human Garden: 20th Century Population Management in a Comparative Framework (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003). See also Eric D. Weitz, A Century of Genocide: Utopias of Race and Nation (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003). 32 Franke Wilmer, “Identity, culture, and historicity: the social construction of ethnicity in the Balkans,” World Affairs, Vol 160, No 1, 1997, p 6. 33 Marko Živković, “Stories Serbs tell themselves,” Problems of Post Communism, Vol 44, No 4, 1997, pp 22–29. 34 See Franke Wilmer, op cit, p 12. 35 Andrei Simić, “Nationalism as a folk ideology: the case of former Yugoslavia,” in Joel M. Halpern and David A. Kideckel, eds, Neighbors at War: Anthropological Perspectives on Yugoslav Ethnicity, Culture, and History (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000), pp 104–107. 36 Wilmer, op cit, p 6. 37 Cvijeto Job, Yugoslavia's Ruin: The Bloody Lessons of Nationalism, a Patriot's Warning (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002), p 160. 38 Cvijeto Job, “Yugoslavia's ethnic furies,” Foreign Policy, No 92, 1993, pp 52–74. 39 Quoted in Cathie Carmichael, Ethnic Cleansing in the Balkans: Nationalism and the Destruction of Tradition (London: Routledge, 2002), p 80. 40 Jasna Dragović-Soso, “Saviours of the Nation”: Serbia's Intellectual Opposition and the Revival of Nationalism (London: Hurst & Company, 2002), pp 89–92. On the play, see Louis Sell, Slobodan Milošević and the Destruction of Yugoslavia (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002), p 43. 41 Dragović-Soso, op cit, pp 104–114. 42 Gordana Uzelac, “Franjo Tudjman's nationalist ideology,” East European Quarterly, Vol 31, No 4, 1998, p 456; and Stef Jansen, “The violence of memories: local narratives of the past after ethnic cleansing in Croatia,” Rethinking History, Vol 6, No 1, 2002, p 80. 43 Job, “Yugoslavia's ethnic furies,” op cit. 44 ICTY, Stakic (IT-97-24) “Prijedor,” July 3, 2002, < http://www.un.org/icty/transe24Stakic/020703IT.htm>. 45 Hukanović, op cit, p 10. 46 Dervišević-Česić, op cit, pp 37, 51, 57, 59. 47 See, for example, Roger Cohen, Hearts Grown Brutal: Sagas of Sarajevo (New York: Random House, 1998), pp 154–155. 48 The Times, November 11, 1992. 49 Carmichael, op cit, p 44. On Croatian extremist nationalist identification with the Ustaša, see Jill A. Irvine, “Ultranationalist ideology and state-building in Croatia, 1990–1996,” Problems of Post-Communism, Vol 44, No 4, 1997, pp 30–43. For a discussion of “Turks,” see Vamik Volkan, Bloodlines: From Ethnic Pride to Ethnic Terrorism (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997), pp 68–69, 73. 50 Jones, op cit, p 29. 51 The Independent, September 3, 1992. 52 Quoted in Ed Vulliamy, Seasons in Hell: Understanding Bosnia's War (New York: St Martin's Press, 1994), p 8. 53 Wesselingh and Vaulerin, op cit, p 74. 54 Quoted in Cohen, op cit, pp 478–480. 55 The Guardian, July 24, 1992. 56 Human Rights Watch, Bosnia Herzegovina: “A Closed, Dark Place”: Past and Present Human Rights Abuses in Foča (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1998); and Hugh Pain, “Bosnia: Moslem culture destroyed in Bosnian town,” Reuters News Service, September 25, 1992. 57 Jones, op cit, p 87. 58 Ibid, pp 48, 56, 112. 59 Vulliamy, op cit, p 9. 60 New York Times, July 31, 1991. 61 Sell, op cit, p 139. 62 Washington Post, July 14, 1991. 63 Bieber, op cit, p 100.
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