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Lebanese Shi‵ites and The Marja‵iyya : Polemic in the Late Twentieth Century

2009; Routledge; Volume: 36; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/13530190903007269

1469-3542

Rula Jurdi Abisaab,

Jewish and Middle Eastern Studies

Abstract The marja‵iyya (rank of legal exemplar among Twelver Shi‵ites) is part of a complex system of legal guidance, socio-religious management, economic administration and political negotiation at the seminaries, and in local, regional, and international settings. In Lebanon, the crisis of the modern state, the Shi‵ites' ambiguous national position, deterioration of their rural regions, struggle with Israel, and the Civil War (1975–1990), valorized political Shi'ism, and its spokesmen. Common Shi‵ites searched for new readings of spiritual and temporal leadership in modern society. Yet, neither proposals for a hierarchical structuring of the marja‵iyya, nor for its systematization under Iran's vali-ye faqīh (deputy of the jurist), succeeded in gaining majority support in Lebanon. Meanwhile, the muqallidūn (emulators of a marja‵) benefited from the non-institutional base and non-hierarchical character of Shi‵ite legal-spiritual authority of the marja‵iyya to achieve a measure of control over the ‘post’ through the dynamics of civil society. Facing a large number of competing marāji‵(pl. of marja‵), the laity felt empowered to give or withdraw critical support from a potential marja‵ and to defy formal designations of marāji‵ by Najaf and Qum within their locales in Jabal ‵Amil (south Lebanon), the Biqa‵ and Beirut. Notes 1 I use the term Shi‵ite to denote Twelver Shi‵ites. 2 Said Amir Arjomand, ‘Authority in Shi'ism and Constitutional Developments in the Islamic Republic of Iran’, in Rainer Brunner and Werner Ende (eds) The Twelver Shia in Modern Times (Leiden: Brill, 2001), p. 301. 3 Khomeini's views on Islamic government are reflected in his work, Velayat-i Faqih: hukumat-i Islami (Iran: n.p., n.d.). See also Hamid Algar (ed.) ‘Islamic Government’, in Islam and Revolution (London: KPI, 1981). 4 Arjomand, ‘Authority in Shi'ism’, p. 301. 5 Arjomand, ‘Authority in Shi'ism’ p. 308. 6 Modern jurists and researchers too noted that the plurality of ‘exemplars’ was evident since the medieval Islamic period. See ‘Abbas Muhajirani, ‘Ta‵addud al-Maraji‵ Ya‵ud ila ‵Asr al-’A'imma’, Al-Nur, 2 (1994), pp. 34–35. Muhajirani noted that Ibn Babuya al-Qummi (d. 381/991), al-Shaykh al-Mufid (d. 413/1022) and al-Sharif al-Murtada (d. 436/1044) each acted as a marja‵ in the general sense of the term, answering legal questions and issuing fatwās (legal injunctions) equivalent in content to al-risāla al-‵amaliyya (collection of legal opinions) which a marja‵ is expected to produce today as a proof of his authoritative juridical expertise. See also Muhammad Hadi al-Asadi, ‘Al-Marja‵iyya al-Diniyya ‘inda al-Shi‵a al-Imamiyya’, Al-Nur, 2 (1994), pp. 40–46. 7 For in-depth studies of the marja‵iyya, see Juan Cole, ‘Imami Jurisprudence and the Role of the ‵ulama: Mortaza Ansari on Emulating the Supreme Exemplar’, in Nikki R. Keddie (ed.) Religion and Politics in Iran (New Haven & London: Yale University, 1983), pp. 33–46; Abbas Amanat, ‘In Between the Madrasa and the Marketplace: The Designation of Clerical Leadership in Modern Shi'ism’, in S.A. Arjomand (ed.) Authority and Political Culture in Shi‵ism (New York: State University of New York Press, 1988), pp. 98–133; Linda S. Walbridge (ed.) The Most Learned of the Shi‵a: The Institution of Marja‵ al-Taqlid (Oxford: Oxford University press, 2001); Faleh Jabar, The Shi‵ite Movement in Iraq (London: Saqi, 2003), pp. 171–184. 8 See Amanat, ‘In Between the Madrasa’, pp. 98–101. For an overview of the jurists discussions of the marja‵iyya and its conditions from the late nineteenth century, see Ara’ fi al-Marja‵iyya al-Shi‵iyya (Dar al-Rawda: Beirut, 1994), pp. 87–197. 9 For a detailed assessment of the financial factors contributing to the ‘recognition’ of a marja‵, see Mehdi Khalaji, ‘The Last Marja‵: Sistani and the End of Traditional Religious Authority in Shiism’, Policy Focus, no. 59, The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, September 2006, pp. 1–36. See also Faleh Jabar, The Shi‵ite Movement in Iraq (London: Saqi, 2003), pp. 171–184. 10 Khalaji, ‘The Last Marja‵’, p. 9. 11 Khalaji, ‘The Last Marja‵’ p. 16. 12 Yitzhak Nakash, The Shi‵is of Iraq (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), p. 60. 13 Samira Haj, The Making of Iraq, 1900–1963 (New York: SUNY Press, 1997), pp. 19–21. The tribes varied in terms of property rights and location within the political structure. 14 Nakash, The Shi‵is of Iraq, p. 64. 15 Nakash, The Shi‵is of Iraq p. 65. 16 ‘Ali al-Wardi, Lamahat Ijtima‵iyya min Tarikh al-Iraq al-Hadith, Vol. l6 (London: Dar Kufan, 1992), pp. 261–267;‵Abd al-‵Abd al-Halim al-Ruhaymi, Ta'rikh al-Haraka al-Islamiyya fi al-Iraq: al-judhur al-fikriyya wa al-waqi‵ al-tarikhi, 1900–1924 (Beirut: Al-Dar al-‵Alamiyya li-al-Tiba‵a, 1985), pp. 241–244. The 1919 Tribal Civil Dispute Regulation Act promulgated by the British gave the chiefs much autonomy especially in settling land disputes. These chiefs and large landlords did not join the revolt against the British in 1920. See Haj, The Making of Iraq, pp. 20–21. 17 Abdullah al-Nafisi, Dawr al-Shi‵a fi Tatawwur al-Iraq al-Siyasi al-Hadith (Beirut: Dar al-Nahar li al-Nashr, 1986), pp. 135–141. 18 Pierre-Jean Luizard, ‘Shaykh Muhammad al-Khalisi (1890–1963) and his Political Role in Iraq and Iran in the 1910s/1920s’ in R. Brunner and W. Ende (eds) The Twelver Shia in Modern Times (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 2001), pp. 227, 230. 19 See Jawdat al-Qazwini, ‘The School of Najaf’, in Faleh Abdul-Jabar (ed.) Ayatollahs, Sufis and Ideologues: State, Religion and Social Movements in Iraq (London: Saqi Books, 2002), p. 249; Luizard, ‘Shaykh Muhammad al-Khalisi’, pp. 226, 227–228. 20 Luizard, ‘Shaykh Muhammad’, p. 229. 21 Nakash, The Shi‵is of Iraq, p. 118. 22 Nakash, The Shi‵is of Iraq p. 119. 23 Nakash,The Shi‵is of Iraq pp. 122–123; See Ma‵a Kibar ‵ulama’ al-Najaf al-Ashraf, Vol. 2 (Beirut, 1999), pp. 402–403. On Kashif al-Ghita’ see, Jawdat al-Qazwini (ed.) Al-‵Abaqat al-‵Anbariyya fi al-Tabaqat al-Ja‵fariyya (Beirut: Bisan li-al-Nashr wa al-Tawzi‵, 1998). 24 Nakash, The Shi‵is of Iraq, pp. 122, 123; Jabar, The Shi‵ite Movement in Iraq, p. 66. 25 Jabar, The Shi‵ite Movement in Iraq, p. 66. 26 Jabar, The Shi‵ite Movement in Iraq. 27 Salim al-Hasani, Al-Ma‵alim al-Jadida li al-Marja‵iyya al-Shi‵iyya: Dirasa wa Hiwar ma‵a Ayatullah al-Sayyid Muhammad Husayn Fadlullah (n.p., 1413/1993), p. 171. For studies on Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr, see Chibli Mallat, The Renewal of Islamic Law: Muhammad Baqer as-Sadr, Najaf and the Shi'i International (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); T.M. Aziz, ‘The Role of Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr in Shi‵i Political Activism in Iraq From 1958 to 1980’, IJMES, 25 (1993), pp. 207–222. 28 Al-Hasani, Al-Ma͑alim, p. 169. 29 Al-Hasani, Al-Ma'alim pp. 169–170. 30 Al-Hasani, Al-Ma'alim p. 171. 31 For more on this question see Mohsen Milani, ‘The Transformation of the Velayat-e Faqih Institution: From Khomeini To Khamenei’, The Muslim World, 82(3–4) (July–October, 1992), pp. 175–190; Ahmed Kazemi Moussavi, ‘The Institutionalization of Marja‵-i Taqlid in the Nineteenth Century Shi‵ite Community’, The Muslim World, 84(3–4) (July–October 1994), pp. 279–300. 32 ‘Fi man Tawalla al-Marja‵iyya al-‵Ulya ba‵da al-Harb al-Kubra, 1914–18’, Al-Nur (February 1994), pp. 36–39. 33 Jean Calmard, ‘Marja‵ al-Taqlid’, Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 554. See also Hamid Mavani, ‘Analysis of Khomeini's Proofs for al-Wilaya al-Mutlaqa (Comprehensive Authority)’, in Linda S. Walbridge (ed.) The Most Learned of the Shi'a (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 198. 34 See Rula Jurdi and Malek Abisaab, From Colonial Subjects to Hizbullah's Militants: Historicizing the Shi‵ites of Lebanon (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, forthcoming), Ch. 2 and 3. 35 On this question see, Murtaza Mutahheri, ‘Muskhil-i Asasi dar Saziman-i Ruhaniyyat’, Howzeh, no. 1–6 (1961), pp. 10–15. 36 Al-Hasani, Al-Ma‵alim al-Jadida, pp. 150–151. 37 Al-Wasat, ‘Ijma‵ ‵ala Marja‵iyyat al-Najaf’, no. 116, (18 April 1994), p. 30. 38 Muhammad al-Gharawi, Ma‵a ‵ulama’ al-Najaf al-Ashraf, Vol. 2 (Beirut: Dar al-Thaqalayn, 1999), pp. 336–337. 39 Falah Hasan, ‘Al-Marja‵iyya wa Waqi‵ al-Umma al-Mu‵asir’, Al-Nur, 28 (September, 1993), p. 28. 40 Falah Hasan, ‘Al-Marja‵iyya wa Waqi‵ al-Umma al-Mu‵asir’, Al-Nur, 28 (September, 1993), p. 28. 41 ‘Fi man Tawalla’, p. 38. 42 See Maziar Behrooz, ‘The Islamic State and the Crisis of Marja‵iyat in Iran’, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 16(2) (1991), pp. 93–100. 43 Waddah Sharara, ‘Murshid al-Jumhuriyya al-Islamiyya al-Iraniyya Yudfa‵ ila al-Jam‵ bayna al-Wilaya wa al-Fiqh Marratayn’, Al-Hayat (18 December 1994), p. 16. 44 See Ja‵far al-Dujayli (ed.) Mawsu‵at al-Najaf al-Ashraf: al-Marja‵iyya fi al-Najaf, part 2, Vol. 12 (Beirut: Dar al-Adwa’, 1998), p. 184. 45 ‘Fi man Tawalla’, p. 38. 46 al-Qazwini, ‘The School of Qum’, p. 277. 47 ‘Fi man Tawalla’, p. 39; ‘Rahil Shaykh al-Fuqaha’ wa al-Mujtahidin al-Shaykh Muhammad ͑Ali al-Araki’, Al-Tawhid, no. 74 (February 1995), pp. 115–120. 48 ‘Rahil Shaykh al-Fuqaha’’, p. 116. 49 ‘Fi man Tawalla’, p. 39. On Ruhani, ee Mawsu‵at al-Najaf al-Ashraf, part 2, Vol. 12, p. 145. 50 al-Qazwini, ‘The School of Qum’, p. 278. 53 In Persian: ‘’ijtihād mus alaÎ dar Îowzeh-hā kāfī nemībāshad, balkeh yek fard agar a‵lam dar ‵ulūm-i ma‵hūd-i howzeh-hā ham bāshad, valī natavānad maslahat-i Jāmi‵eh rā tashkhī dahad…[in fard dar masā'il-i ijtimā‵ī va Îukūmatī mujtahid nīst’. See ‘Intikhab-e marja‵’’ Howzeh, no. 56–57, Year 3 (1372), pp. 3–10’.‵ulama’ al-Umma’, pp. 121–128. 51 See Behrooz, ‘The Islamic State and the Crisis of Marja‵iyat’, 98–99; ‘‵ulama’ al-Umma: Al-Imam al-Khamini'i Marja‵an Diniyyan A‵la li-al-Taqlid wa al-Fatwa’, Al-Tawhid, no. 74 (February 1995), pp. 124–125; Mawsu‵at al-Najaf al-Ashraf, part 2, Vol. 12, p. 247. See also Khamenei's biography (Zindigi-nameh), http://www.khamenei.ir/EN/Biography/index.jsp 52 ‘‵ulama’ al-Umma’, p. 125. 54 ‘‵ulama’ al-Umma’, pp. 125–126; Mawsu‵at al-Najaf al-Ashraf, part 2, Vol. 12, p. 199. A wealth of data on Qum's and Najaf's mujtahids is available on their websites. The latter reveal the importance mujtahids place on public dissemination of their views and accessibility to their followers. See http://www.jafariyyanews.com; http://www.al-haqq.com; http://www.imamreza.net 55 al-Qazwini, ‘The School of Qum’, p. 279. See also Amanat, ‘In Between the Madrasa and the Market Place’, pp. 98–132. 56 See ‘Intikhab-i Marja‵’’, Howzeh, no. 56–57, Year 3 (1372), pp. 3–10; Murtaza Mutahheri, ‘Muskhil-i Asasi’, pp. 13–21. See also Muhajirani, ‘Ta‵addud al-Maraji‵’, pp. 34–35. 57 ‘Ali Mahmud Hijazi, ‵Sha͑ir al-Tahhaddi: al-Shaykh ‘Ali Mahdi Shams al-Din’, in Habib Sadiq (ed.) Wujuh Thaqafiyya min al-Janub (Beirut: Al-Majlis al-Thaqafi li-Lubnan al-Janubi, 1984), p. 41. 58 Zaynab Isma'il, ‘Min al-Najaf ila Shaqra’ tariq shi͑r wa thaqafa wa din: kayfa kana al-intiqal wa al-͑awda min al-hawza al-diniyya ila al-hawza al-mariksiyya?’, Al-Safir (29 October 2004), p. 2. 59 Zaynab Isma'il, ‘Min al-Najaf ila Shaqra’ tariq shi'r wa thaqafa wa din: kayfa kana al-intiqal wa al-‘awda min al-hawza al-diniyya ila al-hawza al-mariksiyya?’, Al-Safir (29 October 2004), p. 2 See also Tarif Khalidi, ‘Shaykh Ahmad ͑Arif al-Zayn and al-͑Irfan’ in Marwan Buheiry (ed.) Intellectual Life in the Arab East, 1890–1939 (Beirut: American University of Beirut Press, 1981), p. 119. 60 Khalidi, ‘Shakh Ahmad’, p. 120. 61 Najm al-Din Ja͑far al-Hilli known as al-Muhaqqiq al-Awwal (d. 1277), Shara͑i’ al-Islam fi Masa'il al-Halal wa al-Haram (Beirut: Dar al-Adwa’, 1969), pp. 179–184. 62 Najm al-Din Ja'far al-Hilli known as al-Muhaqqiq al-Awwal (d. 1277), Shara'i’ al-Islam fi Masa'il al-Halal wa al-Haram (Beirut: Dar al-Adwa’, 1969) p. 184. 63 Khalidi, ‘Shaykh Ahmad’, p. 120. 64 Sulayman Taqi al-Din, ‘Al-Janub al-Lubnani bi-Ri͑ayat al-Istiqlal’, in Habib Sadiq (ed.) Safahat min Tarikh Jabal ‵Amil (Beirut: Al-Majlis al-Thaqafi li-Lubnan al-Janubi, 1979), pp. 140–141. 65 Akram Ja'far al-Amin (ed.) Ja'far Muhsin al-Amin: Sira wa ‵Amiliyyat (Beirut: Dar al-Farabi, 2004), p. 33; Sabrina Mervin, Un réformisme chiite. Ulémas et lettrés du Gabal ‵Amil (actuel Sud-Liban) de la fin de l'empire ottoman à l'indépendance du Liban (Paris-Beyrouth-Damas), Karthala-CERMOC-IFEAD. It was translated into Arabic by Haytham al-Amin under Harakat al-Islah al-Shi͑i: ‵ulama’ Jabal ‵Amil wa Udaba'ihi min Nihayat al-Dawla al-͑Uthmaniyya ila Bidayat Istiqlal Lubnan (Beirut: Dar al-Nahar, 2000), pp. 435, 436; Taqi al-Din, ‘Al-Janub al-Lubnani’, p. 138; Jihad Bannut, Harakat al-Nidal fi Jabal ‵Amil (Beirut: Dar al-Mizan, 1993), p. 286. 66 Muhammad Jabir Al Safa (d. 1945), Tarikh Jabal ‵Amil (Beirut: Dar al-Nahar, 1981), p. 303. 67 Mustafa Bazzi, Bint Jubayl: Hadirat Jabal ‵Amil (Beirut: Dar al-Amir li al-Thaqafa wa al-‵Ulum, 1998), pp. 412–418. 68 For a critical analysis of the decline in the power of nineteenth-century Shi‵ite provincial leaders, See Stefan Winter, ‘The Shi‵ite Emirates of Ottoman Syria (mid-17th–mid-18th-century)’, Ph.D. diss., History Department, University of Chicago, 2002, Ch. 5. On the French colonial period, see Malek Abisaab, Militant Women of a Fragile Nation, (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, forthcoming), Ch. 1. 69 Engin Deniz Akarli, The Long Peace: Ottoman Lebanon, 1861–1920 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993), pp. 51–52. 70 Vahe Karyergatian, ‘Monopoly in the Lebanese Tobacco Industry’ (M.A. Thesis, The American University of Beirut, 1965), pp. 19–23. 71 Taqi al-Din, ‘Al-Janub al-Lubnani’, p. 139. 72 Ja'far Sharaf al-Din, ‘Sayyid Husayn Sharaf al-Din’, in Min Daftar al-Dhikrayat al-Janubiyya, Part 2, (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-͑Arabi, 1984), p. 25. 73 Ja'far Sharaf al-Din, ‘Sayyid Husayn Sharaf al-Din’, in Min Daftar al-Dhikrayat al-Janubiyya, Part 2, (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-‘Arabi, 1984) p. 31. 74 Mervin, Harakat al-Islah, pp. 480–481, 493. On the modern political history of Shi‵ite elites and scholars see Tamara Chalabi, The Shi'is of Jabal ‵Amil and the New Lebanon (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006). 75 On Shirazi's fatwā see, Hasan al-Asadi, Thawrat al-Najaf ͑ala al-Inkliz (Baghdad: Manshurat Wizarat al-‘I'lam, 1975), pp. 364–366. 76 Mervin, Harakat al-Islah, pp. 112, 480–481. 77 French Archives, MEA, South Lebanon, no. 410 (no date). The report was written around 1934 or 1935. 78 Sayyid Muhsin al-Amin, in Sayyid Hasan al-Amin (ed.) A‵yan al-Shi‵a (Beirut: Dar al-Ta'aruf, 1986), pp. 333–446. 79 Rula Jurdi Abisaab, ‘From the Shi‵ite awza (seminary) to Marxism: ‵Amili interpretations of anti-colonial modernism, 1920–1950’ MESA Conference, Boston, November 2006. 80 ‵Abd al-Husayn Sadiq composed Sima’ al-Sulaha’ (Sidon: Matba'at al-‘Irfan, 1927) in response to Sayyid Muhsin's opposition to self-flagellation during ‘Ashura expressed in Al-Majalis al-Saniyya. See Sima’, pp. 4–8, 40. Muhsin al-Amin's work, Al-Tanzih li A͑mal al-Shabih was published in 1928. For more on this question see Werner Ende, ‘The Flagellations of Muharram and the Shi‵ite ‵ulama’, Der Islam 55 (1978), pp. 20–36. 81 See Yitzhak Nakash, The Shi'is of Iraq, pp. 154–162. 82 Mervin, Harakat al-Islah, pp. 328–329. 83 A'yan al-Shi'a, vol. 10, p. 362. 84 Al Safa, Tarikh Jabal ‵Amil, pp. 226–228. 85 Akram al-Amin, Ja'far Muhsin, p. 33. 86 French Archives, MAE, South Lebanon, no. 410 (no date). From the content of the report one can deduce that it was written in 1934 or 1935. 87 French Archives, MEA, South Lebanon, no. 204 (20 April 1936). Sharaf al-Din refused to support anti-French protestors in Tyre. Mervin neglected the anti-colonial dimension of the social ‘bandits’, presenting them as anarchic and lacking legitimacy. See Mervin, Harakat al-Islah, pp. 448, 450. 88 Muhibb Hamada, Tarikh ͑Alaqat al-Biqa‵iyyin bi al-Suriyyin wa Istratijiyyat al-Biqa‵ fi al-Muwajaha al-Suriyya al-Isra‘iliyya, 1918–1936 (Beirut: Dar al-Nahar, 1983), p. 80. 89 Hamada, Tarikh ‘Alaqat, p. 252; Jihad Bannut, Harakat al-Nidal, p. 286. 90 Hamada, Tarikh ‘Alaqat, p. 252. 91 Hamada, Tarikh ‘Alaqat p. 147. 92 Hamada, Tarikh ‘Alaqat pp. 164–169. The main bandits were formed of the Qasim, al-Tufayli and Dandash family members. 93 Muhammad Hasan al-Suri, ‘Hayat al-Talib’, Al-‘Irfan, 25(3) (1934), p. 236. 94 Muhammad Hasan al-Suri, ‘Hayat al-Talib’, Al-‘Irfan, 25(3) (1934), p. 236; ‘Ali al-Zayn, ‘Bawadir al-Islah fi Jami‵at al-Najaf aw Nahdat Kashif al-Ghita’, Al-͑Irfan, 29(2) (1939), pp. 179–181. 95 ͑Ali al-Zayn, ‘Bawadir al-Islah’, p. 185. 96 For more on this question see Nakash, The Shi'is of Iraq, pp. 262–268. 97 Musa al-Zayn Sharara, ‘Min Dhikrayat al-Sha͑ir Musa al-Zayn Sharara’, in Min Daftar al-Dhikrayat al-Janubiyya, Vol. 2 (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-Lubnani, 1984), p. 68. 98 ‘Ali Hijazi, ‘Sha͑ir al-Tahhaddi: al-Shaykh ‘Ali Mahdi Shams al-Din’, Wujuh Thaqafiyya min al-Janub, part 2, (Beirut: Al-Majlis al-Thaqafi li-Lubnan al-Janubi, 1984), pp. 38, 41, 44. 99 See Rula Jurdi & Malek Abisaab, From Colonial Subjects to Hizbullah's Militants: historicizing the Shi‵ites of Lebanon (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, forthcoming), Ch. 2 and 3. 100 See Hadi Fadlallah, Muhammad Jawad Mughniyya: Fikr wa Islah (Beirut: Dar al-Hadi, 1993), pp. 229, 345, 381. 101 Houchang Chehabi (ed.) Distant Relations: Iran and Lebanon in the last 500 years (London: I.B. Tauris, 2006), p. 157. 102 Augustus Richard Norton, Amal and the Shi'a: Struggle for the Soul of Lebanon (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1987), pp. 42–43; Waddah Sharara, Dawlat Hizbullah (Beirut: Dar al-Nahar, 1997), p. 76. See also Nizar al-Zayn, ‘Editorial’ Al-‘Irfan, no. 9, 10 (January–February, 1971), pp. 999–1000. 103 Edmund Asfour, ‘Industrial Development in Lebanon’, Middle East Economic Papers, no. 2 (1955), p. 3. See also ‵Adnan Fahs, Al-Zuruf al-Iqtisadiyya Li-al-Harb al-Lubnaniyya (The Economic Conditions of the Lebanese War) (Beirut: Dar al-Nahar, 1979), pp. 44–46, 47. 104 Ahmad al-Katib, ‘Al-Marja‵iyya al-Shi‵iyya dawla fi al-dawla?’ Al-Wasat, no. 471 (5 February 2001), p. 19. 105 Ahmad al-Katib, ‘Al-Marja‵iyya al-Shi‵iyya dawla fi al-dawla?’ Al-Wasat, no. 471 (5 February 2001), p. 19. 106 ‘Muhammad Husayn Fadlallah’, Ma‵lumat Mustaqbal al-Usuliyya, p. 95. 107 ‘Muhammad Husayn Fadlallah’, Ma‵lumat Mustaqbal al-Usuliyya, p. 95. 108 Michael C. Hudson, ‘Trying Again: Power-Sharing in Post-Civil War Lebanon’, International Negotiation, 2 (1997), pp. 113–117. The Ta'if Accord of 1989 was finalized through Saudi Arabia's efforts, Syrian input, and indirect US participation. The Accord stipulated an equal distribution of parliamentary seats and government positions between Muslims and Christians each treated also as one homogenous group. 109 See ‘Al-Sayyid Hasan Nasrallah’ in Ma‵lumat Mustaqbal al-Usuliyya fi al-‵Alam al-‵Arabi, no. 3 (May 1993), p. 107. 110 See ‘Al-Sayyid Hasan Nasrallah’ in Ma‵lumat Mustaqbal al-Usuliyya fi al-‵Alam al-‵Arabi, no. 3 (May 1993), p. 107. 111 See ‘Al-Sayyid Hasan Nasrallah’ in Ma‵lumat Mustaqbal al-Usuliyya fi al-‵Alam al-‵Arabi, no. 3 (May 1993), p. 107. 112 ‵Abbas al-Musawi was assassinated by Israeli intelligence on the 16th of February, 1992. 113 Interview with Shaykh Subhi al-Tufayli in Brital, the Biqa‵, July 2006. 114 Hala Jaber, Hezbollah: Born with a Vengeance (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), p. 71. 115 Interview with Shaykh Subhi al-Tufayli. 116 Interview with Shaykh Subhi al-Tufayli. 117 Al-Shaykh Muhammad Mahdi al-Asifi, ‘Hawla al-Marja‵iyya al-Diniyya wa Khasa'is al-‵Alim al-Dini’, Al-Tawhid, no.76 (1995), pp. 52–61. 118 Hasan al-Amin, ‘Man al-Marja‵ al-Shi‵i al-Jadid?: Hasan al-Amin Yasif al-Shurut’, Al-Nahar (October 10, 1992), p. 13. 119 Hasan al-Amin, ‘Man al-Marja‵ al-Shi‵i al-Jadid?: Hasan al-Amin Yasif al-Shurut’, Al-Nahar (October 10, 1992), p. 13. 120 Hasan al-Amin, ‘Man al-Marja‵ al-Shi‵i al-Jadid?: Hasan al-Amin Yasif al-Shurut’, Al-Nahar (October 10, 1992), p. 13. 121 For a discussion of shūra al-fatwā (council for issuing legal opinions), see Sayyid Mahmud Taliqani, ‘Tamarkuz va ‵adam-i Tamarkuz-i Marja‵iyyat va Fatva’, in Bahth-i dar Baray-i Marja‵iyyat va Ruhaniyyat, pp. 203–207. Mutahheri called for the specialization of jurists in one exclusive area of fiqh (law) much like modern physicians who specialize in one medical field. He preferred that the laity emulate a number of mujtahids, each in his area of legal specialty. See Mutahheri, ‘Ijtihad dar Islam’, in Bahth-i dar Baray-i Marja‵iyyat, pp. 60–61. 122 Al-Hasani, Al-Ma‵alim al-Jadida, pp. 146–147. 123 Al-Hasani, Al-Ma‵alim al-Jadida, pp. 146–147 p. 153. 124 Al-Hasani, Al-Ma‵alim al-Jadida, pp. 146–147 pp. 58–59. 125 Al-Hasani, Al-Ma‵alim al-Jadida, pp. 146–147 p. 63. 126 Al-Hasani, Al-Ma‵alim al-Jadida, pp. 146–147 pp. 154–155. Fadlallah's clashed with mainstream Iranian jurists at Qum lead to further changes in his views on the marja‵iyya. On the a͑lam see also Abu al-Fadl Mousavi Mujtahid Zanjani, ‘Sharayit va Vazayif-i Marja‵’, in ‵Allama Tabataba'i et al. (eds) Bahth-i dar Baray-i Marja‵iyyat va Ruhaniyyat (Tehran, 1341/1962), p. 29. Zanjani argued that if the supreme a͑lam could not be specified or agreed upon then one can turn to any just jurist and seek his legal opinion. 127 Al-Hasani, Al-Ma‵alim al-Jadida, pp. 146–147 p. 8. 128 Al-Hasani, Al-Ma‵alim al-Jadida, pp. 146–147 p. 86. 129 Al-Hasani, Al-Ma‵alim al-Jadida, pp. 146–147 p. 62. 130 Al-Hasani, Al-Ma‵alim al-Jadida, pp. 146–147 p. 99. 131 Al-Hasani, Al-Ma‵alim al-Jadida, pp. 146–147 p. 111. 132 Al-Hasani, Al-Ma‵alim al-Jadida, pp. 146–147 pp. 95–96. 133 Interview with Sayyid Hasan al-Amin, Beirut, March 1994. 134 Al-Hasani, Al-Ma‵alim al-Jadida, pp. 139–140. 135 Al-Hasani, Al-Ma‵alim al-Jadida pp. 151–152. 136 ‵Adnan al-Sahili, ‘Al-Marja‵iyya al-Shi‵iyya Fi al-‵Alam’, Al-Safir (27 April 1994), p. 5. 137 Sharara, Dawlat Hizbullah, p. 125. 138 Sharara, Dawlat Hizbullah pp. 113–114, 125; Rula Jurdi Abisaab, ‘The Cleric as Organic Intellectual: Revolutionary Shi'ism in the Lebanese Hawzas’ in Houchang Chehabi (ed.) Distant Relations: Iran and Lebanon in the Last 500 Years (London: I.B.Tauris, 2006), pp. 231–258. 139 Roschanack Shaeri-Eisenlohr, ‘Ravabit-i Iran va Lubnan’, Goft-o-gu 37 (Winter 81), pp. 151–154. See also her analysis of transnational links between Iran and Lebanon in Shi‵ite Lebanon: Transnational Religion and Making of National Identities (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), pp. 73–74 and ch. 4. 140 See Rula Abisaab, ‘The Cleric as Organic Intellectual’, pp. 240–241. 141 ‘Mudahamat fi al-Biqa‵ Laylan – Thawrat al-Jiya‵’, Al-Safir (5 July 1997), pp. 1–6. 142 Basim al-Bukur, ‘Lubnan: ‘Duwaylat al-Tufayli’ Turbik al-Dawla’, Al-Wasat (17 November 1997), p. 22. 143 Basim al-Bukur, ‘Lubnan: ‘Duwaylat al-Tufayli’ Turbik al-Dawla’, Al-Wasat (17 November 1997) p. 23. 144 The Lebanese government promised to increase investments in the Biqa‵ to 150 million dollars. This amount, however, was one-third of what the Biqa‵ needed for economic development. 145 Shams al-Din, ‘Al-Qarar al-Shi͑i fi Ma‵rakat al-Ri'asa al-Lubnaniyya – 2’, Al-Watan al-‘Arabi, no. 1126 (2 October 1998), p. 18. 146 Sharara, ‘Murshid al-Jumhuriyya al-Islamiyya’, p. 16. 147 Sharara, ‘Murshid al-Jumhuriyya al-Islamiyya’ p. 19. 148 Shams al-Din, ‘Al-Mashru͑ al-Shi͑i Mashru’ al-Dawla’, Qadaya al-Usbu͑, no. 19 (11–18 February 1994), pp. 11–12. 149 ‘Nuwwab wa Hizbullah wa Naqabat Ayyadu al-Ittihad al-͑Ummali wa Shams al-Din.’, Al-Hayat (19 July 1995), p. 2. 150 Shams al-Din, ‘Al-Qarar al-Shi‵i’, p. 20. 151 Shams al-Din, ‘Al-Qarar al-Shi‵i’, p. 20. 152 Al-Hasani, Al-Ma‵alim al-Jadida, p. 146. 153 See Augustus Richard Norton's important studies on Amal's formation and outlook, especially, Amal and the Shi‵a. 154 Hani Fahs, ‘Tullab al-Najaf al-Lubnaniyyun’, Al-Safir (16 July 1999), p. 5. 155 Sayyid Muhammad al-Amin supported the disarming of Hizbullah during 2005–2006 national Lebanese crisis. 156 Al-Sahili, ‘Al-Marja‵iyya’, p. 5. 157 Al-Dujayli, Mawsu'at al-Najaf al-Ashraf, part 2, Vol. 12, p. 152. Al-Faqih received the license for supreme ’ijtihād from al-Hakim who bestowed it on three or four other scholars. He was instrumental in founding al-Madrasa al-‵Amiliyya in Najaf. 158 Fahs appreciated the relative freedom of the alaba in choosing their courses and teachers. Yet he complained about the nature of the subjects of study and textbooks which rarely discussed works of literature or philosophy. See ‘Tullab al-Najaf’, pp. 1–3. 159 Fahs appreciated the relative freedom of the Ôalaba in choosing their courses and teachers. Yet he complained about the nature of the subjects of study and textbooks which rarely discussed works of literature or philosophy. See ‘Tullab al-Najaf’ p. 1. 160 See ‘Sur: Hani Fahs wa Samir Faranjiyya fi Nadwa ͑an al-Hiwar al-Lubnani’ in Qadaya al-Usbu͑ (16 July 1993), pp. 11–13. 161 ‘Tullab al-Najaf’, p. 5. At the awza, Fahs read the works of Karl Marx and Jean Paul Sartre and wrote his graduate thesis on ‘The Atheist Trend during the time of Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq’. 162 Murtaza Mutahheri, ‘Muskhil-i Asasi’, pp. 13–21.