Early Women Law Students at Cambridge and Oxford
2008; Routledge; Volume: 29; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/01440360801903588
ISSN1744-0564
Autores Tópico(s)Comparative and International Law Studies
ResumoAbstract This article examines the hitherto neglected history of the twelve women who studied law at Cambridge and Oxford in the years up to 1900. It concludes that the reason why so little has been written about them is, first, because women's experience has been routinely ignored in accounts of legal education (and in history generally) and, second, because their entry to the university law schools was accomplished with very little fuss or opposition. This in turn was due not only to the fact that the law professors were generally sympathetic to higher education for women but also because the women themselves did not challenge university traditions or the men's curriculum. I am grateful for the grant from the AHRC Centre for Law, Gender and Sexuality that enabled me to employ an excellent research assistant, Hilary Clare, to examine the archives of the Cambridge and Oxford women's colleges. I also wish to acknowledge the assistance provided by Kate Perry, archivist of Girton College, and Mary Jane Mossman for information on Cornelia Sorabji. Finally, I must thank the anonymous reviewers for their very helpful criticisms and suggestions. Notes 129 Times LR 634; 1914 1 Ch 286. 2See James C. Albisetti, ‘Portia Ante Portias: Women and the Legal Profession in Europe, ca. 1870–1925’, 33 Journal of Social History (2000), 825–858; Nellie Alden Franz, English Women Enter the Professions, Cincinnati, 1965, 257–293; Elsie M. Lang, British Women in the Twentieth Century, London, 1929, chs.2 and 6; Patrick Polden, ‘Portia's Progress: Women and the Bar, 1919–1939’, 12 International Journal of the Legal Profession (2005), 293–338; Rosie Pearson and Albie Sachs, ‘Barristers and Gentlemen: A Critical Look at Sexism in the Profession’, 43 Modern Law Review (1980), 400–414; Albie Sachs and Joan Hoff Wilson, Sexism and the Law: a study of male beliefs and judicial bias, Oxford, 1978; Joanna Wade, ‘Portia, Portia and Co: Women and Law, 1860s–1920s’, in Sally Alexander, ed., Studies in the History of Feminism (1850s–1930s), London, 1984, 33–44; Eleni Skorkaki, ‘Glass Slippers and Glass Ceilings: Women in the Legal Profession’, 3 International Journal of the Legal Profession (1996), 7–44; Clare McGlynn, The Woman Lawyer: making the difference, London, 1998; Clare McGlynn, ‘The Status of Women Lawyers in the United Kingdom’, in Ulrike Schulz and Gisela Shaw, eds., Women in the World's Legal Professions, Oxford, 2003, 139–158; Mary Jane Mossman, The First Women Lawyers: a comparative study of gender, law and the legal professions, Oxford, 2006. 3See Barbara Caine, English Feminism, 1780–1980, Oxford, 1997; Carol Dyhouse, No Distinction of Sex? Women in British Universities 1870–1939, London, 1995; Josephine Kamm, Hope Deferred: girls' education in English history, London, 1965; Philippa Levine, Victorian Feminism 1850–1900, London, 1987; Ray Strachey, The Cause: a short history of the women's movement in Great Britain, London, 1928; and the college histories noted below. 4See E. Moberly Bell, Storming the Citadel: the rise of the woman doctor, London, 1953; Carol Dyhouse, ‘Women Students and the London Medical Schools: the Anatomy of a Masculine Culture’, 10 Gender and History (1998), 110–132; William M. Gordon, ‘The Right of Women to Graduate in Medicine – Scottish Judicial Attitudes in the Nineteenth Century’, 5 Journal of Legal History (1984), 136–151; Jo Manton, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, London, 1965; Sachs and Hoff Wilson, Sexism and the Law, 4–22; Margaret Todd, Sophia Jex-Blake, London, 1918. 5Compared to, for example, the United States: see D. Kelly Weisberg, ‘Barred from the Bar: Women and Legal Education in the United States, 1870–1890’, in D. Kelly Weisberg, ed., Women and the Law: a social historical perspective, vol.2, Cambridge, MA, 1982, 231–258. 6Dea Birkett, Off the Beaten Track: three centuries of women travellers, London, 2004, 135 (exhibition catalogue). 7The University of London was founded in 1836 with power to award degrees to members of its constituent and future colleges. Women were admitted to undergraduate lectures in law at University College from 1871; they were granted London degrees from 1878; and Eliza Orme obtained her LLB in 1888: London University Calendars; Leslie Howsam, ‘Orme, Eliza’, in H.C.G. Matthew and B. Harrison, eds., Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford, 2004 (ODNB); Mossman, First Women Lawyers, ch.3. 8The history of women law students at the University of London is, however, well worth exploring, and will be the subject of a future paper. According to John Baker, the first woman law graduate of one of the London colleges (as opposed to the external LLB) was Dorothy Bonarjee of University College in 1917: J.H. Baker, ‘University College and Legal Education 1826–1976’, 30 Current Legal Problems (1977), 7. See also H. Hale Bellot, University College, London, 1826–1926, London, 1929, 373, and Negley Harte and John North, The World of UCL: 1828–1926, London, rev. ed., 1991, 78. 9Christopher Harvie, ‘Bryce, James, Viscount Bryce’, ODNB; Charlotte Carmichael Stopes, British Freewomen: their historical privilege, London, 1894, 186, 192; C.S. Bremner, Education of Girls and Women in Great Britain, London, 1897, 148–153; Edward Jenks, ‘English Legal Education’, 101 Law Quarterly Review (1935), 163; Mabel Tylecote, The Education of Women at Manchester University 1883 to 1933, Manchester, 1941, 1–14; Dyhouse, No Distinction of Sex?, 2–3, 12–13. 10Richard A. Cosgrove, ‘Pollock, Sir Frederick’, ODNB. 11Jenks, ‘English Legal Education’, 163. 12Christabel Pankhurst, Unshackled: the story of how we won the vote, London, 1959, 43, 62; Tylecote, Education of Women at Manchester University, 56. 13Richard L. Abel, ‘Comparative Sociology of Legal Professions’, in Richard L. Abel and Philip S.C. Lewis, eds., Lawyers in Society, vol.3, Berkeley, CA, 1989, 89. 14Figures calculated from Cambridge and Oxford college registers. 15Medicine shares with law the combination of academic and practical training that characterises most professions today. In the nineteenth century, however, most other men's professions were not linked to discipline-specific university studies (architecture, accountancy and so on), nor were the professions in which women predominated (school-teaching, nursing). Only theology had its own degree courses, and it is noteworthy that women were excluded from both medicine and theology at many universities long after all other studies, including law, were opened to them. 16Baker, ‘University College and Legal Education’, 1–13; L.C.B. Gower, ‘English Legal Training: a Critical Survey’, 13 Modern Law Review (1950), 137–205; Jenks, ‘English Legal Education’; A.H. Manchester, A Modern Legal History of England and Wales 1750–1950, London, 1980, 54–66; Philip Schofield, ‘Jeremy Bentham and Nineteenth-Century English Jurisprudence’, 12 Journal of Legal History (1991), 58–88; W.L. Twining, ‘Laws’, in F.M.L. Thompson, ed., The University of London and the World of Learning 1836–1986, London, 1990, 81–114. 17Gower, ‘English Legal Training’, 137–140; Schofield, ‘Jeremy Bentham and Nineteenth-Century English Jurisprudence’, 69. 18Baker, ‘University College and Legal Education’, 1. 19This is the date of its formal creation; in fact the first holder of the post, Edward Christian, occupied the chair and gave lectures in English law from 1785, see Michael H. Hoffheimer, ‘Christian, Edward’, ODNB; J.H. Baker, 75 Years of Law at Cambridge: a brief history of the Faculty of Law, Cambridge, 1996, 8. 20Baker, 75 Years of Law at Cambridge, 8. 21Richard L. Abel, The Legal Profession in England and Wales, Oxford, 1988, 263. 22N.G. Jones, ‘Geldart, James William’, ODNB; [Baker], 75 Years of Law at Cambridge, 9, 11. 23Vera Brittain, The Women at Oxford: a fragment of history, New York, 1960, 23. 24Maitland's role in legal education is discussed below. 25(1830–1921). She persuaded the Schools Inquiry Commission of 1865 to examine girls' education as well as boys', leading to restoration of endowments for girls' schools; secured the admission of women to university entrance examinations; and, in 1869, set up the first university college for women, which became Girton College. A lifelong Tory, she was nevertheless involved in other feminist causes including votes for women. Sara Delamont, ‘Davies, Emily’, ODNB; Daphne Bennett, Emily Davies and the Liberation of Women, London, 1992; Barbara Caine, Victorian Feminists, Oxford, 1992; Margaret Forster, Significant Sisters: the grassroots of active feminism, 1839–1939, Harmondsworth, 1984; Barbara Stephen, Emily Davies and Girton College, London, 1977. 26In 1863 Davies wrote, when trying to persuade the University of London to open its degrees to women: ‘It is not intended to assert that the curriculum of the London University is absolutely the best that could possibly be devised for women. There are differences of opinion as to whether it is absolutely the best for men. But in the meantime, here it is, ready made to our hands.’ (Thoughts on Some Questions Relating to Women, quoted in E.E. Constance Jones, Girton College, London, 1913, 10). See also Emily Davies, ‘Special Systems of Education for Women’ (1868), in Dale Spender, ed., The Education Papers: women's quest for equality in Britain 1850–1912, London, 1987, 99–110. 27Mrs Adam, ‘Girton College’, 1909 University Review, quoted in Jones, Girton College, 36. See also Barbara Stephen, Girton College 1869–1932, Cambridge, 1933; B. Megson and J. Lindsay, Girton College 1869–1959: an informal history, Cambridge, n.d. 1960; M.C. Bradbrook, ‘That Infidel Place’: a short history of Girton College, London, 1969; Rita McWilliams Tullberg, Women at Cambridge: a men's university, though of a mixed type, London, 1975. 28F.S. de Carteret-Bisson, Our Schools and Colleges (Boys), London, 5th ed., 1879, 39–45. 29See Miss Mason's diary, discussed at n.47 and following, below. 30The words ‘attained the standard of ordinary degree’ are sometimes appended to the women students' results in the college records; but classes of degree seem to have been awarded (see Miss Mason's diary, below). Constance Jones (1848–1922), student, lecturer in moral sciences and later mistress of Girton, wrote that there were occasions during this period of voluntary examining (when she herself was a student) that ‘the examiners could not agree what class to give’. She was a contemporary of Sarah Mason: Jones, Girton College, 30. See also Mary Warnock, ‘Jones, (Emily Elizabeth) Constance’, ODNB. 31De Carteret-Bisson, Our Schools and Colleges (Boys), 61. 32E.C. Clark, Cambridge Legal Studies, Cambridge, 1888, 9, 11, 85–86, 93. 33 Girton College Register, 1869–1946, Cambridge, 1948. It seems to have been assumed that a first-class grade in the women's ‘special examination’ was of the same standard as first-class work by men, though since the examinations were differently named no direct comparisons could be made, and the women were not awarded degrees. 34Scholarships had been available at Girton since its foundation: two of the first five students came up in 1869 on scholarships which covered the full three years of their degree, the money having been raised from subscriptions. Other scholarships were offered later by a number of city companies: the Clothworkers, Drapers, Skinners, and Goldsmiths are mentioned in Barbara Stephen's history of the college, Girton College, 25, 78. Polly Hill counted seven scholarships for thirty-six students in 1878, see Polly Hill, The Early Cambridge Women Students: the sociological, demographic and sexual contexts and the women's subsequent careers, Cambridge, 1995, 57. 35Alice Gardner, A Short History of Newnham College, Cambridge, 1921, 15. 36Perry Williams, ‘Pioneer Women Students at Cambridge, 1869–81’, in Felicity Hunt, ed., Lessons for Life: the schooling of girls and women 1850–1950, Oxford, 1987, 177; Gardner, A Short History of Newnham College, 40; Sandra J. Peacock, Jane Ellen Harrison: the mask and the self, New Haven, 1988, 39. 37Gardner, Short History of Newnham College, 13–14. 38Medieval and constitutional historian (1865–1906), daughter of the master of St John's College, Cambridge, and his feminist wife, both of them supporters of Newnham College. Here Mary studied history 1884–87 and achieved first-class honours. She went on to become a research fellow and lecturer at Newnham, having been F.W. Maitland's research student – practically his only one, according to Christopher Brooke, A History of the University of Cambridge, vol.4, 1870–1990, Cambridge, 1993, 318–320. A suffragist, she was one of the first modern professional female academics: she edited medieval texts and wrote both scholarly and popular work, including the two-volume Borough Customs for the Selden Society (London, 1904, 1906). Maitland in her obituary repeated the remark of a lord chief justice that ‘Miss Bateson knew more about English legal history than nine lawyers out of ten’. F.W. Maitland, ‘Mary Bateson’, reprinted from the Athenaeum (1906), in H.A.L. Fisher, ed., The Collected Works of Frederic William Maitland, vol.3, Cambridge, 1911, 541–543. She was also responsible for ten of the entries in the Dictionary of National Biography. Her death at 41 from a brain haemorrhage was a great loss to her college and to feminist scholarship. Mary Dockray-Miller, ‘Bateson, Mary’, ODNB; Elizabeth Crawford, The Women's Suffrage Movement: a reference guide 1866–1928, London, 1999, 39; Gardner, Short History of Newnham College, 94–98. 39Henry James Sumner Maine (1822–88). A distinguished jurist and legal educator, he held chairs at Cambridge and Oxford and a readership at the Council of Legal Education prior to becoming master of Trinity Hall, Cambridge, from 1877: R.C.J. Cocks, ‘Maine, Sir Henry James Sumner’, ODNB; R.C.J. Cocks, Sir Henry Maine: a study in Victorian jurisprudence, London, 1988; Nick O'Brien, ‘“Something older than law itself”: Sir Henry Maine, Niebuhr, and “the path not chosen”’, 26 Journal of Legal History (2005), 229–251. 40I am grateful to Professor Sir John Baker for furnishing me with a copy of this letter. 41Gardner, Short History of Newnham College, 19. 42In the Girton College Review, quoted in Stephen, Girton College, 79. 43Stephen, Girton College, 133. 44Gardner, Short History of Newnham College, 38–39. 45Ibid., 89–91. 46McWilliams Tullberg, Women at Cambridge, 105; Stephen, Girton College, 76. Women were not formally admitted to the University Library until 1923: Hill, The Early Cambridge Women Students, 12. 47The diary was given to the Girton College archives in 1970 by Sarah Mason's daughter, Mrs Lester: GCPP Tebbutt Cupboard 4(9). 48Constance Herschel became Lady Lubbock upon her marriage: Stephen, Girton College, 67, 71, 180. 49J.A. Venn, compiler, Alumni Cantabrigienses, pt.2, vol.4, Cambridge, 1951, 292. 50Cocks, ‘Maine, Sir Henry’, ODNB. 51Frances Mary Buss (1827–94), educational pioneer and founder of the North London Collegiate School and the Camden School for Girls: Josephine Kamm, How Different From Us: a biography of Miss Buss and Miss Beale, London, 1958; Elizabeth Coutts, ‘Buss, Frances Mary’, ODNB. 52Irish-born Sophie Bryant (1850–1922), widowed at the age of 20, was appointed to teach mathematics at the North London Collegiate School in 1875, working for her degree at the same time. She graduated with a BSc (London) in 1881 and a DSc in 1884, the first woman to receive a doctorate for academic work. Headmistress of the North London Collegiate School 1895–1918, she wrote extensively on education and Irish home rule, was the first woman to be elected to the University of London Senate, and actively supported women's suffrage. Her death on the Matterhorn, which she had already climbed twice, indicates how far women had moved into men's territory; many distinguished Cambridge and Oxford men were Alpinists – for example, James Bryce. Sheila Fletcher, rev., ‘Bryant [née Willock], Sophie’, ODNB; Dyhouse, Girls Growing Up in Late Victorian and Edwardian England, London, 1981, 45. 53The North London Collegiate School for Ladies (later for Girls), the first of the new academic girls' schools, sent several students to Girton. A year after Sarah Mason came Margaret Meyer, later lecturer in mathematics at Girton and president of the Ladies' Alpine Club; two years later the botanist Ethel Sargant: Stephen, Girton College, 186–187, 189. 54Clara Collet, feminist and civil servant (1860–1948), took a London BA in 1880 and an MA in mental and moral science (possibly the first woman to do so, according to David Doughan) in 1888, having won the Hume Scholarship in political economy in 1886. (Eliza Orme, the first woman to graduate with an LLB, had been Hume Scholar in 1876.) At the Board of Trade and elsewhere Collet was responsible for some of the most important research on women's work and education; see also her Educated Working Women, London, 1902. See Deborah McDonald, Clara Collet 1860–1948, London, 2004, 18. See also David Doughan, ‘Collet, Clara’, ODNB; Baker, ‘University College and Legal Education’, 7. 55Roland Knyvet Wilson, Bart (1840–1919), reader in Indian law at Cambridge, 1878–92. A barrister, he had been a law reporter for the Weekly Law Reports and the Law Journal. His publications included A Short History of Modern English Law, London, 1874, and several books on Islamic law: Who's Who, 1910; Joseph Foster, Alumni Oxonienses, London, 1887, vol.6, 527. 56(Marianne) Frances Bernard (1839–1926) was the first Mistress of Girton to be appointed through advertisement. She had spent time in India when her uncle Lord Lawrence was viceroy and had taken a teacher-training course for elementary teaching at the Home and Colonial Training College in London before her appointment to Girton in 1875. She married P.W. Latham, Downing professor of medicine at Cambridge, in 1885, and died in 1926. Barbara Megson points out that, in those early days, her work encompassed supervision of all staff, students, and facilities, organising courses, accounting for all expenditure – and chaperonage: Barbara Megson, ‘Bernard [married name Latham], (Marianne) Frances’, ODNB; Stephen, Girton College, 71, 183. 57This suggests he may have taught the (one) Newnham law student, too. 58The third volume is ‘Of Private Wrongs’, and concludes with a controversial discussion of equity. The fourth volume, ‘Of Public Wrongs’, is devoted to criminal law: William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, 4 vols., Oxford, 1765–69. 59Barbara Bodichon (1827–91) initiated the campaign for the Married Women's Property Acts, amongst others. She has been the subject of many studies including Hester Burton, Barbara Bodichon 1827–1891, London 1949; Sheila R. Herstein, A Mid-Victorian Feminist, Barbara Leigh Smith Bodichon, New Haven, 1984; Pam Hirsch, Barbara Leigh Smith Bodichon, London, 1999; and see also Candida Ann Lacey, ed., Barbara Leigh Smith Bodichon and the Langham Place Group, London, 1987. 60(1820–92), sister of Arthur Hugh Clough, secretary of the North of England Council for Promoting the Higher Education of Women, 1867–70, and president, 1873–74; founder of Newnham College, Cambridge, 1871, and its first principal. See B.A. Clough, Anne J. Clough, London, 1897; Gillian Sutherland, ‘Clough, Anne Jemima’, ODNB. 61The reform of the Cambridge curriculum was a particular goal of Henry Sidgwick, one of the founders of Newnham. His wife succeeded Anne Clough as principal of Newnham in 1891. Ethel Sidgwick, Mrs Henry Sidgwick: a memoir, London, 1938; Helen Fowler, ‘Sidgwick [née Balfour], Eleanor Mildred’, ODNB; Stefan Collini, ‘Sidgwick, Henry’, ODNB; Gardner, Short History of Newnham College; M.A. Hamilton, Newnham: an informal history; McWilliams Tullberg, Women at Cambridge; A. Phillips, ed. A Newnham Anthology, Cambridge, 1979. 62The donor of this scholarship, Anna Aikin, was the wife of W.H. Bateson, master of St John's College, Cambridge, and mother of Mary Bateson, and ‘a promoter of women's rights and liberal causes in Cambridge’: Mary Dockray-Miller, ‘Mary Bateson’, ODNB. 63 Newnham College Register, 1871–1950, Cambridge, 1963. 64 Girton College Register. 65Sir Hugh Pollock (1859–1944). Foster states he was called to the Bar by Lincoln's Inn. Assistant registrar in the Land Registry 1898–1921, he was the author of The Law of Property Acts, 1922 to 1925 … with a complete index and tables, London, 1925: Foster, Alumni Oxonienses, vol.3. 66Maxine L. Berg, ‘Knowles, Lilian Charlotte Anne’, ODNB. 67She was the not only woman who managed to obtain work in a lawyer's office: Cornelia Sorabji (see below) underwent a form of training with a solicitor's firm in the 1890s, while even earlier – in 1875 – Eliza Orme (England's first woman law graduate, from London University) set up her own business as a conveyancer and patent clerk in what was to all intents and purposes a law office, though she was not officially qualified. See Mossman, The First Women Lawyers, chs.3, 5. 68(1849–1919). University extension lecturer, 1874–78, Cunningham became examiner for the new history tripos at Cambridge in 1878 and lectured there in economic history. He became a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1891 and was professor of economics at King's College, London, 1891–97. In his Oxford Dictionary of National Biography entry on F.W. Maitland, Milsom describes Cunningham as ‘Maitland's friend and undergraduate rival’, and notes that, while Cunningham (‘an apologist for British imperialism’, according to Gerald Koot) is ‘all but forgotten’, Maitland's influence lives on: Gerald Koot, ‘Cunningham, William’, ODNB; S.F.C. Milsom, ‘Maitland, Frederic William’, ODNB. 69(1874–1934). Daughter of a shoe manufacturer, Alice Clark went into the family business rather than to university but was nevertheless awarded a fellowship at the London School of Economics to research, under Lilian Knowles, what became the pioneering study The Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century, London, 1919. Sandra Stanley Holton, ‘Clark, Alice’, ODNB. 70(1898–1982). Author of the classic studies Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution, 1750–1850, London, 1930, and, with Margaret Hewitt, Children in English Society, 2 vols., London, 1969–73, Pinchbeck was a history graduate from University College, Nottingham. She was inspired by Knowles (who died the year she arrived) to take an MA and a PhD in economic history at the LSE. She subsequently taught at Bedford College, a women's college of the University of London, rising to reader in economic history before her retirement in 1961: Katrina Honeyman, ‘Pinchbeck, Ivy’, ODNB. 71(1889–1940). Distinguished mediaeval historian, author of many books on women and other subjects, Power was educated at Oxford High School for Girls and Girton. She then undertook research at the LSE and, after a period as director of studies in history at Girton, returned to the LSE as lecturer (1921), reader (1924), and professor (1931). She married fellow-historian M.M. Postan: Maxine L. Berg, ‘Power, Eileen’, ODNB. 72It is true, of course, that many men as well as women did not progress beyond a readership (or even get that far) – Sarah Mason's tutor Roland Wilson, and Cornelia Sorabji's tutor William Markby, for instance, never occupied chairs. But there is ample evidence that it was hard for women to become professors until relatively recently: the first woman law professor in England and Wales, for example, was not appointed until 1973. This was Claire Palley at the University of Kent, see The Commonwealth Universities Yearbook, London, 1974. 73Another school with strong links to Girton, it had been founded by one of the very first Girton students, (Dame) Louisa Lumsden. Located in St Andrew's, it was the first of the new public schools for girls. Agnata Ramsay, who in 1887 became the first woman to be placed above the top male classics student, was a St Leonard's girl. 74Information from the Girton College Register and Jill Bowis, Mercy Ashworth's great-niece. 75Alice Gardner, ‘In Memoriam – Mrs Temperley’, Newnham College Roll Letter (1924), 107. 76Ibid., 108. 77G. Bradford, Proceedings in the Court of Star Chamber in the reigns of Henry VII and Henry VIII (1485–1547) (Somerset Record Soc. 27), London, 1911. 78(1879–1939), later the most distinguished diplomatic historian of his day and professor of modern history at Cambridge: Brendan Simms, ‘Temperley, Harold William Vazeille’, ODNB. 79Ibid. 80He was also closely involved in the founding of the Selden Society (1887) whose object was to publish sources in English legal history: S.F.C. Milsom, ‘Maitland, Frederic William’, ODNB; C.H.S. Fifoot, Frederic William Maitland: a life, London, 1971; G.R. Elton, F.W. Maitland, London, 1985. 81His importance is reflected in the title Christopher Brooke chose for the section on law in his history of Cambridge in this period: ‘Law: Frederic William Maitland’, A History of the University of Cambridge, vol.4, 1870–1990, Cambridge, 1992, 216. 82W.J. Whittaker, quoted in [Baker], 75 Years of Law at Cambridge, 14. 83 Cambridge University Reporter, 1896–97, 749. See also McWilliams Tullberg, Women at Cambridge, 132; Milsom, ‘Maitland, Frederic William’, ODNB. 84Gardner, Short History of Newnham College, 97. 85Peacock, Jane Ellen Harrison, 46. Jane Ellen Harrison (1850–1928), distinguished classical scholar, was immortalised by Virginia Woolf in A Room of One's Own, London, 1928; ‘[C]ould it be the famous scholar, could it be J - H - herself?’, 19. 86Annie M.A.H. Rogers, Degrees – by Degrees, Oxford, 1938, 6–7. See also Janet Howarth, ‘“In Oxford but not of Oxford”: The Women's Colleges’, in M.G. Brock and M.C. Curthoys, eds., The History of the University of Oxford, vol.7, Nineteenth-Century Oxford, pt.2, Oxford, 2000, 237–307. 87Ibid., 101. Annie Rogers (1856–1937), daughter of an Oxford MP, obtained first-class honours in 1877 in the degree-level ‘women's examinations’ set up by Oxford University, a full two years before any women's college had been established. She became Oxford's first woman don as classics tutor to the Association for the Education of Women and active in the campaigns to admit women as full members of the university, Janet Howarth, ‘Rogers, Annie Mary Anne Henley’, ODNB. 88Madeleine Shaw Lefevre (1835–1914), first warden of Somerville Hall (as it was then), 1879–89, was a woman of good liberal political and academic connexions (her father had been a vice-chancellor of London University). See Pauline Adams, Somerville for Women: an Oxford college, 1879–1993, Oxford, 1996; Enid Huws Jones, ‘Lefevre, Madeleine Septimia Shaw’, ODNB. 89Sir William Markby (1829–1914), reader in Indian law at Oxford 1878–1900, tutor to the Indian ‘probationers’ 1881–83. He had been a judge of the High Court of Bengal (1866–78) and was the author of books on Indian, Hindu and ‘Mohammedan’ law as well as Elements of Law Considered with Reference to the Principles of General Jurisprudence, Oxford, 1871. He also co-founded the Law Quarterly Review with Holland, Pollock, Bryce and Anson. Foster, Alumni Oxonienses, vol.3, 912; T.G. Watkin, ‘Markby, Sir William’, ODNB. 90Mossman, The First Women Lawyers, 204–205. 91Rogers, Degrees – by Degrees, 62. 92Adams, Somerville for Women, 33. 93Brittain, Women at Oxford, 51. 94Adams, Somerville for Women, 27–28. 95Ibid., 47; Martha Vicinus, Independent Women, London, 1985, 127. 96Adams, Somerville for Women, 49. 97Cornelia Sorabji, India Calling: the memories of Cornelia Sorabji, India's first woman barrister, 2nd ed. by Chandani Lukogé, New Delhi, 2002, 32. Clara Pater, sister of Walter, was a member of the Association for the Education of Women, 1879–85, and taught students from both Somerville and Lady Margaret Hall; she went on to become resident tutor at West Building, 1887–94: Adams, Somerville for Women, 35–36. 98Adams, Somerville for Women, 62. A.V. Dicey (1835–1922), one of the greatest jurists of the age, held the Vinerian chair for twenty-seven years: Richard A. Cosgrove, ‘Dicey, Albert Venn’, ODNB; R.A. Cosgrove, The Rule of Law: Albert Venn Dicey, Victorian jurist, London, 1980. 99Cosgrove, Rule of Law, 66. Helen Taylor (1831–1907) was a noted feminist, active in the suffrage movement and other causes. She paid for Eliza Orme to become a pupil at Lincoln's Inn, though they refused to admit her: Mossman, The First Women Lawyers, 124; Philippa Levine, ‘Taylor, Helen’, ODNB. 100Sorabji, India Calling, 19. See also Mary Jane Mossman, ‘Cornelia Sorabji: A “Woman in Law” in India in the 1890s’, 16 Canadian Journal of Women and the Law (2004), 54–85, and Mossman, The First Women Lawyers, 191–237. 101Mary (née Farrar) married Arthur, Baron Hobhouse, in 1848, and died in 1905. 102Lord Hobhouse (1819–1904) was also a Balliol graduate: C.E.A. Bedwell, rev. H.C.G. Matthew, ‘Hobhouse, Arthur, Baron Hobhouse’, ODNB. 103The founder of modern nursing, Florence Nightingale (1820–1910) was a close friend of Jowett – see Benjamin Jowett, Dear Miss N, ed. by Vincent Quinn and John Prest, Oxford, 1987. 104Mossman, The First Women Lawyers, 202–203. 105Sorabji, India Calling, 27. 106Peter Hinchliff and John Prest, ‘Jowett, Benjamin’, ODNB. 107James, Viscount Bryce (1838–1922) had an extraordinary career that encompassed legal academic, Liberal MP and ambassador to the United States. In women's history, he is remembered as a commissioner to the Schools Inquiry Commission of 1864 which put in train the reforms to women's education that enabled their entry to the universities, and as chair of the royal commission of 1894–96 that led to universal secondary education for boys and girls. A life-long friend of women's education, he was a founding
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