Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

Customary Killings in Turkey and Turkish Modernization

2009; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 45; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/00263200903009593

1743-7881

Hilal Onur İnce, Aysun Yarali, Doğancan Özsel,

Cultural and Sociopolitical Studies

Abstract Rather than reducing the problem to ethno-cultural characteristics, we explain the persistence of customary killings in Turkey through the shortcomings of the Turkish modernization project. As we argue, the problem persists because of the failure of modernization to have a real impact on rural regions, and of the conceptualization of woman by the modernizing elite as an object to be moulded. Also, by utilizing proverbs and novels we address the prevalent patriarchal culture which endorses customary killings but, far from being problematized, it is even promoted by this project. Alternatively, we propose a more critical and deliberative modernization Notes 1. U. Beck, Risikogesellschaft auf dem Weg in eine andere Moderne (Frankfurt/M: Suhrkamp, 1986), p.79. 2. See D. Aslan and S. Üner, The Status of Health in Turkey, No.01/19 (Ankara: Hacettepe Health Foundation, 2001); E.G. Balkan, Population Issues – Health, Development and Environment Perspectives in the World and in Turkey (Ankara: MoH UNFPA, 1995). 3. For a detailed discussion of this point, see F. Kardam, Türkiye'de Namus Cinayetlerinin Dinamikleri: Eylem Programıİçin Öneriler Sonuç Raporu[Dynamics of Honour Killings in Turkey: Final Report for an Action Programme] (Ankara: UN Turkey, 2005), available at http://www.undp.org.tr/traboutusdocvuments/namuscinayetleri.pdf (accessed 1 Sept. 2007). 4. See İ. Kerestecioğlu, 'Türkiye'de Kadının Toplumsal Konumu: Kazanımlar ve Sorunlar'[Social Position of Woman in Turkey: Achievements and Problems], in Türkiye'de ve Avrupa Birliği'nde Kadının Konumu: Kazanımlar, Sorunlar, Umutlar[Social Position of Woman in Turkey and European Union: Achievements, Problems and Hopes] (İstanbul: KA-DER, 2004), pp.35–55; and Kardam, Türkiye'de Namus Cinayetlerinin Dinamikleri. 5. It should be noted that customary killings are not directly related to reality. See 'Pakistan: Wo Blicke Tödlich Enden Können', Le Monde Diplomatique (Geman ed.), 15 June 2001, pp.18–19. 6. See M. Souad, Bei lebendigem Leib (München: Blanvalet, 2003). 7. See Human Rights Presidency, 2007 Honour Killings Report (Ankara, 2007), available at http://www.ihb.gov.tr/bilgi_bankasi/raporlar_reports/ihb_raporlar%fd/honour_killings_report_2007.pdf (accessed 28 June 2008). 8. See M. Faraç, Töre Kıskacında Kadın[Woman in the Trap of Customs] (İstanbul: Çağdaş, 1998). 9. E. Özkök, 'Asıl Kürt Sorunu Bu'[This is the Real Kurdish Question], Hürriyet, 14 June 2006. 10. For an impressive critique of this ethnocentric understanding, see A. Durukan, Töre Cinayetine Beyaz Türk Bakışı[The 'Crème Turk' Perspective against Customary Killings] (Bianet, 2005), available at http://ww.bianet.org/bianet/kategori/bianet/80713/tore-cinayetine-beyaz-turk-bakisi (accessed 20 June 2008). 11. See Human Rights Presidency, 2007 Honour Killings Report. 12. The categories utilized in this study were proposed in N. Sirman, 'Feminism in Turkey: A Short History', New Perspectives on Turkey, Vol.13 (1989), pp.1–34. 13. See F. Berktay, 'Cumhuriyet'in 75 Yıllık Serüvenine Kadınlar Açısından Bakmak'[Looking at the 75 Year Old Journey of the Republic from the Perspective of Women], in A.B. Hacımirzaoğlu (ed.), 75 Yılda Kadınlar ve Erkekler[Women and Men during the 75 Years] (İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yayınları, 1998), pp.1–13; A. Kadıoğlu, 'Cinselliğin İnkarı: Büyük Toplumsal Projelerin Nesnesi Olarak Türk Kadınları'[Denial of Sexuality: Turkish Women as the Object of Grand Social Projects], in A.B. Hacımirzaoğlu (ed.), 75 Yılda Kadınlar ve Erkekler[Women and Men during the 75 Years] (İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yayınları, 1998), pp.89–100; Z. Toska, 'Cumhuriyet', in Kadın İdeali: Eşiği Aşanlar ve Aşamayanlar'[Ideal Woman of the Republic: Passed and Failed Ones], in A.B. Hacımirzaoğlu (ed.), 75 Yılda Kadınlar ve Erkekler[Women and Men during the 75 Years] (İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yayınları, 1998), pp.71–88. 14. The Islamic view on women was the antithesis of the Western view and criticized the latter's humanitarian ethics. To exemplify this, we refer to Sadrazam Said Halim Pasha who regarded any proposal to extend the freedom of women as dangerous for the sustainability of an Ottoman society constructed upon Islamic values. Even some Young Turks were influenced by this Islamic view. See N. Göle, Modern Mahrem Medeniyet ve Örtünme[Modern Privacy, Civilization and Veil] (İstanbul: Metis, 1991), pp.18–33. 15. Ibid., p.17. 16. Ibid., p.39. 17. Ibid., p.42. 18. L. Köker, Modernleşme, Kemalizm ve Demokrasi[Modernization, Kemalism and Democracy] (İstanbul: İletişim, 1995), p.222. 19. See Ş. Tekeli, 'The Meaning and Limits of Feminist Ideology in Turkey', in F. Özbay (ed.), The Study of Women in Turkey, An Anthology (Ankara: UNESCO and Türk Sosyal Bilimler Derneği, 1986). 20. D. Kandiyoti, Cariyeler, Bacılar, Yurttaşlar – Kimlikler ve Toplumsal Dönüsümler[Concubines, Sisters, Citizens – Identities and Social Transformations] (İstanbul: Metis, 1997), pp.317–38; B. Toprak, 'Emancipated but Unliberated Women in Turkey: The Impact of Islam', in B. Toprak (ed.), Women, Family and Social Change in Turkey (Bangkok: UNESCO, 1990), pp.39–50. 21. Y. Arat, 'The Project of Modernity and Women in Turkey', in S. Bozdoğan and R. Kasaba (eds.), Rethinking Modernity and National Identity in Turkey (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997), p.101; Z. Toprak, 'Cumhuriyet Halk Fırkasından Önce Kurulan Parti: Kadınlar Halk Fırkası'[The Party Founded Before the People's Republican Party: Women Republican Party], Tarih ve Toplum, Vol.51 (1988), pp.30–31. 22. Arat, 'The Project of Modernity', p.101; Z. Toprak, '1935 İstanbul Uluslararası Feminizm Kongresi ve Barış'[1935 Istanbul International Congress of Feminism and Peace], Düşün, Vol.9 (1986), p.24. 23. The 'new woman' played a significant role in the symbolization of the secular regime of the new republic. She performed in official celebrations in trousers, she was the flag bearer in her military or school uniform and she danced at balls in her most impressive clothes. The adoption by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk of a number of girls as his daughters in a society in which boys are traditionally preferred reveals the symbolic importance of women in the early republic. Kandiyoti, Cariyeler, Bacılar, Yuttaşlar, p.174. 24. Kadıoğlu, 'Cinselliğin İnkarı', p.91. 25. Ibid., p.91. 26. For instance the Turkish Republic granted women the right to vote and to be elected to parliament in 1934. 27. On 12 September 1980 Turkey suffered a military coup. High-ranking generals used the unstable political situation of the country and ongoing clashes between different radical factions from the left and right as their justification and, with the support of the USA, took control of the country for three years. During this period an authoritarian constitution was implemented and widespread torture and state-sponsored terror was commonplace. After this period, again with the support of the USA, Turkey began to implement neo-liberal economic policies. After 1990 the country experienced a gradual recovery and improvement in its democratic system, thanks to a newly emerging civil society. 28. N. Sirman, 'Feminism in Turkey: A Short History', New Perspectives on Turkey, Vol.13 (1989), pp.3–4. 29. Kandiyoti, Cariyeler, Bacılar, Yurttaşlar, p.202. 30. Ibid., p.203. 31. See Ş. Mardin, Türkiye'de Toplum ve Siyaset[Society and Politics in Turkey] (İstanbul: İletişim, 2002). 32. Kandiyoti, Cariyeler, Bacılar, Yurttaşlar, p.209. 33. Y.K. Karaosmanoğlu, Ankara (İstanbul: İletişim, 1991), p.71. 34. A similar emphasis on sustaining the domestic responsibilities of women throughout the modernization process is evident in the Egyptian experience as well. See B.A. Salmoni, 'The Limits of Pedagogical Revolution: Female Schooling and Women's Roles in Egyptian Educational Discourse, 1922–1952', in T. Ewing (ed.), Revolution and Pedagogy (New York: Palgrave, 2004), pp.61–85. 35. S. Graham-Brown, Images of Women (London: Quarter Books, 1998), p.212. 36. Y. Doğan, 'Onlar töreden kurtulmayı başaran kadınlar'[They are the Women Who Managed to Liberate themselves from the Custom], Hürriyet, 17 April 2005. 37. Türkiye Kalkınma Vakfı, GAP Bölgesi'nde Kadının Statüsü ve Kalkınma Sürecine Entegre Edilmesi Araştırması[Research on the Status of Woman in the GAP Region and Her Integration into the Process of Development] (Ankara: GAP Bölge Kalkınma İdaresi, 1994), pp.6–8. 38. Berdel is the name of a traditional practice according to which two families 'exchange' their women by arranging simultaneous marriages between daughters and sons from each family. 39. F. Kardam, 'Namus Gerekçesiyle Öldürme Ya da Kendi Canına Kıyma'[Killing in the name of Honour, or Suicide], in A. Akın (ed.), Toplumsal Cinsiyet, Sağlık ve Kadın[Gender, Health and Woman] (Ankara: Hacettepe Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2003), pp.249–62. 40. See Ntvmsnbc, Töre cinayetleri mercek altında[Customary Killings under Focus], 2 January 2006. 41. Kardam, 'Namus Gerekçesiyle Öldürme', p.256. 42. See articles 414 to 434 in the 8th section of the old Turkish Criminal Code. Türk Ceza Kanunu[Turkish Criminal Law] (Ankara: Yetkin, 1992). 43. Kardam, 'Namus Gerekçesiyle Öldürme', p.256. 44. Articles 44 to 60 in the section entitled 'Causes that Cancel or Reduce Punishment' are informative on this matter (Türk Ceza Kanunu, 1992). 45. See article 82 of the new code. Türk Ceza Kanunu[Turkish Criminal Law] (Ankara: Yetkin, 2008). 46. Kardam, Türkiye'de Namus Cinayetlerinin Dinamikleri, pp.3–4. 47. Doğan, 'Onlar töreden kurtulmayı başaran kadınlar'. 48. Kardam, Türkiye'de Namus Cinayetlerinin Dinamikleri, p.50 49. The prevalence of this assumption in Turkish culture and daily life can be exemplified by referring to proverbs. Although a number of other proverbs are mentioned later in the study, at this point we underline two widely known Turkish proverbs that can be loosely translated as 'having a girl is having trouble' and 'if you do not kick your girl now, you will kick yourself later'. 50. O. Kemal, Arkadaş Islıkları[Whistles of Friends] (İstanbul: Can, 1995), p.150. 51. H.R. Gürpınar, Namuslu Kokotlar[Chaste Coquettes] (İstanbul: Varlık, 1984), p.189. 52. H.R. Gürpınar, Utanmaz Adam[The Shameless Man] (İstanbul: Varlık, 1947), p.298. 53. Ç. Altan, Geçip Giderken[On the Way] (Ankara: Soysal, 1975), p.79. 54. M. Yurtbaşı, Türk Atasözleri Sözlüğü[Dictionary of Turkish Proverbs] (Ankara: T.C. Kültür Bakanlığı, 1994). 55. Ibid. 56. W. Schiffauer, Die Gewalt der Ehre. Erklaerungen zu einem Tuerkisch-Deutschen Sexualkonflikt (Frankfurt/M: Suhrkamp, 2002), p.148. 57. D. Soyaslan, 'Töre Cinayetlerinin Önlenmesi [Precluding Customary Killings]', in Töre Cinayetleri Panel Bildirileri[Panel Presentations on Customary Killings] (Ankara: TC Başbakanlık Kadının Statüsü ve Sorunları Genel Müdürlüğü). 58. S.M. Okin, Is Multiculturalism Bad for Women? (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), p.108. 59. See Y. Ertürk, 'Doğu Anadolu'da Modernleşme ve Kırsal Kadın [Modernization and Rural Woman in Eastern Anatolia]', in Ş. Tekeli (ed.), 1980'ler Türkiye'sinde Kadın Bakış Açısından Kadınlar[Women from the Perspective of Women in the Turkey of the 1980s] (İstanbul: İletişim, 1993).