The Transformation of Security Planning for the Olympics: The 1976 Montreal Games
2015; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 29; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/09546553.2014.987342
ISSN1556-1836
Autores Tópico(s)Martial Arts: Techniques, Psychology, and Education
ResumoAbstractMontreal's Summer Olympics in 1976 was a turning point in Olympic history: it was the Games' first highly visible security operation. It was also a transformative moment in the history of security planning in Canada: preparations for the games contributed to shifting the Security Services' focus from communism towards domestic and international terrorism. The following article documents, for the first time, the scope of this operation. It is based on five years of requests and appeals under the federal Access to Information Act, which led to the release of over fifty thousand pages of Royal Canadian Mounted Police documents. I argue that security for the Montreal Olympics was based largely on imagined threats. In addition, I argue that security costs for the Montreal Olympics were high but modest as compared to the overall budget. Nonetheless, Montreal set a precedent for high security costs that have since become the standard for hosting the Olympics. Finally, I argue that the Montreal Olympics had long-term implications for policing in Canada. The scale of the operation produced new resources and inter-agency links that were only made possible as a result of hosting the games.Keywords: Canadainternational and domestic terrorismOlympicspolicingQuebec security NotesCody Lang was the Research Assistant on this project. This research was supported through funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council.The Olympic Stadium had to be closed in 1991 when more than 50 tons of concrete fell off the roof.According to Kristine Toohey and Tracy Taylor, the legacy of Munich was that "armed guards and police were now conspicuous at venues and in the host city." In addition, Michael Atkinson and Kevin Young insist that "security arrangements in Innsbruck (1976), Montreal (1976), and Lake Placid (1980) were unprecedented in both scope and material resources employed on-site. Perhaps a result of being held on "neutral" political grounds (Austria and Canada), or heavily militarised grounds (the United States), an air of tight security and political confidence permeated each of these Games." Michael Atkinson and Kevin Young, "Political Violence, Terrorism and Security at the Olympic Games," in Kevin Young and Kevin B. Wamsley, eds., Global Olympics: Historical and Sociological Studies of the Modern Games (New York: Elsevier, 2005), 274; Kristine Toohey and Tracy Taylor, "Mega Events, Fear, and Risk: Terrorism at the Olympic Games," Journal of Sport Management 22, no. 2 (2008): 451–469.Tracy Taylor and Kristine Toohey, "Perceptions of Terrorism Threats at the 2004 Olympic Games: Implications for Sport Events," Journal of Sport & Tourism 12, no. 2 (2007): 99–114.Pete Fussey et al. provide a useful summary of the security literature on the Olympics, which as they note includes no serious study of Montreal. Pete Fussey et al., Securing and Sustaining the Olympic City: Reconfiguring London for 2012 and Beyond (Farnham: Ashgate, 2011), 5–6.Jack Ludwig, Five Ring Circus: The Montreal Olympics (Toronto: Doubleday Canada, 1976); Paul Charles Howell, The Montreal Olympics: An Insider's View of Organizing a Self-Financing Games (Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2009).Nicolien van Luijk and Wendy Frisby, "(Re)Framing of Protest at the 2010 Winter Olympic Games," International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics 4, no. 3 (2012): 343–359; Christine M. O'Bonsawin, "'No Olympics on Stolen Native Land': Contesting Olympic Narratives and Asserting Indigenous Rights within the Discourse of the 2010 Vancouver Games," Sport in Society 13, no. 1 (2010): 143–156; David Whitson, "Olympic Hosting in Canada," Olympika 14, no. 1 (2005): 29–46; George Wright, "The Political Economy of the Montreal Olympic Games," Journal of Sport & Social Issues 2, no. 1 (1978): 13–20; David Whitson and John Horne, "Underestimated Costs and Overestimated Benefits? Comparing the Outcomes of Sports Mega-events in Canada and Japan," Sociological Review 54, no. 1 (2006): 71–89; Jennifer Adese, "Colluding with the Enemy?: Nationalism and Depictions of 'Aboriginality' in Canadian Olympic Moments," American Indian Quarterly 36, no. 4 (2012): 479–502; S. J. Jackson, "Sport, Crisis and Canadian Identity in 1988: A Cultural Analysis" (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1992); Janice Forsyth and Kevin B. Wamsley, "Symbols Without Substance: Aboriginal Peoples and the Illusions of Olympic Ceremonies," in Kevin Young and Kevin B. Wamsley, eds., Global Olympics: Historical and Sociological Studies of the Modern Games (Philadelphia: Elsevier JAI, 2005); Nigel B. Crowther, Robert K. Barney, and Michael K. Heine, eds., Cultural Imperialism in Action Critiques in the Global Olympic Trust (London: International Centre for Olympic Studies, 2006); Robert Barney, Scott G. Martyn, and Kevin B. Wamsley, eds., The Global Nexus Engaged: Past, Present, Future Interdisciplinary Olympic Studies (London: International Centre for Olympic Studies, 2002).Taylor and Toohey, "Perceptions of Terrorism Threats at the 2004 Olympic Games" (see note 4 above); Chris W. Johnson, "Using Evacuation Simulations for Contingency Planning to Enhance the Security and Safety of the 2012 Olympic Venues," Safety Science 46, no. 1 (2008): 302–322; Toohey and Taylor, "Mega Events, Fear, and Risk" (see note 3 above); G. Davidson Smith, "Canada's Counter-Terrorism Experience," Terrorism and Political Violence 5, no. 1 (1993): 83–105; Michael Atkinson and Kevin Young, "Terror Games: Media Treatment of Security Issues at the 2002 Winter Olympic Games," Olympika 11, no. 1 (2002): 53–78; Atkinson and Young, "Political Violence, Terrorism and Security at the Olympic Games" (see note 3 above).There are two exceptions. Stephen Wenn has written an article on negotiating television rights for the Montreal Olympics, and Bruce Kidd has written a short essay on nationalism and the politics of the 1976 Games. Stephen R. Wenn, "Television Rights Negotiations and the 1976 Montreal Olympics," Sport History Review 27, no. 1 (1996): 111–138; Bruce Kidd, "The Culture Wars of the Montreal Olympics," International Review of Sport Sociology 27, no. 2 (1992): 151–164.Most accounts peg the cost of security at the Montreal Olympics at $100 million: Lawrence Martin, "Potential Terrorists Watched for 3 Years to Safeguard Games," Globe and Mail, March 24, 1976. Guy Sanan, "Olympic Security Operations, 1972–1994," in Alan Thompson, ed., Terrorism and the 2000 Olympics (Sydney: Australia Defence Studies Centre, 1996), 34. See also Toohey and Taylor, "Mega Events, Fear, and Risk" (see note 3 above); Johnson, "Using Evacuation Simulations for Contingency Planning to Enhance the Security and Safety of the 2012 Olympic Venues" (see note 8 above); Atkinson and Young, "Political Violence, Terrorism and Security at the Olympic Games" (see note 3 above); Nick Auf de Maur, The Billion-Dollar Game: Jean Drapeau and the 1976 Olympics (Toronto: James Lorimer, 1976), 51; Robert C. Cottrell, "The Legacy of Munich 1972: Terrorism, Security and the Olympic Games," in M. de Moragas, C. Kennett, and N. Puig, eds., The Legacy of the Olympic Games 1984–2000 (Lausanne: International Olympic Committee, 2003), 310.Before 1976, Canada had hosted a handful of international sporting events: the Empire Olympiad in Hamilton (1930), the British Empire Games in Vancouver (1954), and the Pan-American Games in Winnipeg (1967). Canada has also hosted numerous Commonwealth Games, including Edmonton in 1978.Dongguang Pei, "A Question of Names: The Solution to the 'Two Chinas' Issue in Modern Olympic History: The Final Phase, 1971–1984," in Nigel B. Crowther, Robert K. Barney, and Michael K. Heine, eds., Cultural Imperialism in Action Critiques in the Global Olympic Trust (London: International Centre for Olympic Studies, 2006).Richard Cleroux, Hubert Bauch, and Lawrence Martin, "Raids Made in Olympic Village Probe," The Globe and Mail, November 26, 1975.These figures are rounded up. They are also based on U.S. dollars and are not adjusted for inflation. They were derived from using Jennings' figures on the costs of the Olympic games using 2008 U.S. dollars, and then adjusted for inflation using the Bank of Canada's inflation calculator: http://www.bankofcanada.ca/rates/related/inflation-calculator/. In other words, Jennings' figure of $406.8 million for the Tokyo Olympics in 1964 was adjusted to $9 million by using the calculator to determine what $406.8 million in U.S. 2008 dollars would have been in 1964 U.S. dollars. Jennings' calculations are based on a Canada-U.S. dollar exchange rate in 2008 that was almost on par (at the same value), which did not necessitate adjusting for currency valuation. Will Jennings, Olympic Risks (New York: Palgrave, 2012), 36.Wright, "The Political Economy of the Montreal Olympic Games" (see note 7 above).Aboriginal people, however, had little control over shaping their role in the opening ceremonies. Forsyth and Wamsley, "Symbols Without Substance" (see note 7 above).Maur, The Billion-Dollar Game (see note 10 above), chapter 6.The federal government was hesitant to support another major international event in Quebec so soon after Expo 67, but nonetheless provided extensive indirect financial support. House of Commons, Hansard 4 (1975), 6962.Garry Whannel, "The Five Rings and the Small Screen: Television, Sponsorship, and New Media in the Olympic Movement," in Kevin Young and Kevin B. Wamsley, eds., Global Olympics: Historical and Sociological Studies of the Modern Games (New York: Elsevier, 2005), 169; Jennings, Olympic Risks (see note 14 above), 33–34.Kidd, "The Culture Wars of the Montreal Olympics" (see note 9 above) 478.Lord Killanin, My Olympic Years (London: Seeker and Warburg, 1983), 120."Sport events have been targeted by terrorists on an estimated 168 different occasions from the Munich Olympic attack in 1972 through to 2003. These have included a car bomb planted by ETA which exploded outside a stadium in Madrid in 2002 before a European Champion Leagues football semi-final match injuring 16 people; a plot by Islamic extremists to bomb a football stadium in Manchester in 2004; and, also in 2004, a bomb threat which occasioned the evacuation of approximately 70,000 fans, players, and officials at a football match at Bernabeu stadium in Spain …. However, the tightening of security has not deterred all further terrorist attempts, as terrorists have since targeted different facets of the Games. In 1992, the Basque separatist group Euzkadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA) and a Marxist group known as Grupo de Resistencia Antifascista Primo October (GRAPO) independently attempted to interrupt the Barcelona Olympic Games by bombing utilities. Both attacks caused relatively minor inconvenience but were unsuccessful in gaining widespread media attention or disrupting the event." Taylor and Toohey, "Perceptions of Terrorism Threats at the 2004 Olympic Games" (see note 4 above), 101.The Japanese Self-Defense Force was not involved in policing, although it did assign thousands of personnel in a supporting role for the events. Organizing Committee for the Olympic Winter Games, Sapporo. 1972. Official Report, 400–406.Global Terrorism Database: http://www.start.umd.edu/gtd.Dominique Clément, "The October Crisis of 1970: Human Rights Abuses Under the War Measures Act," Journal of Canadian Studies 42, no. 2 (2008): 160–186.Ibid. According to the Department of National Defence's liaison for the Olympic games, the Quebec police were far more effective at working with the army because of their experience in 1970. Library and Archives Canada (LAC), Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), RG146, volume 4363, f. Olympic Secretariat Cooperation with Canadian Forces, Final Report: DND Olympic Liaison Officer Operation Gamescan, August 10, 1976.Jennifer J. Webb and Susan L. Cutter, "The Geography of U.S. Terrorist Incidents, 1970–2004," Terrorism and Political Violence 21, no. 1 (2009): 428–449.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4363, f. Olympic Secretariat (Quarterly Report to the Interdepartmental Committee), 9th Status Report, January 1, 1976.Sport Munchen, The Official Report of the Organizing Committee for the Games of the XXth Olympiad Munich, volume 2 (1972), 340–347.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4368, f. Planning Documents, Secret Memorandum to Cabinet, January 6, 1975.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4362, f. Olympic Secretariat – Cooperation 1, Memorandum to Working Group on Security, May 16, 1973.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4368, f. Planning Documents, Secret Memorandum to Cabinet, January 6, 1975."The general director for public security, Dr. Oswald Peterlunger, emphasized again and again that all security measures were to be taken to avoid as far a possible a repetition of the Munich tragedy." Quoted in Fussey et al., Securing and Sustaining the Olympic City (see note 5 above), 43.Hugh Winsor, "Trudeau's Answer a Firm 'No' to any Question of Direct Federal Financing of the Olympics," The Globe and Mail, January 16, 1976.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4359, f. Wallet Attachments, Final Report Security Service, 1976.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4368, f. Planning Documents, Secret Memorandum to Cabinet, January 6, 1975.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4367, f. Cabinet Committee on Security Intelligence (Planning and Threats), Security Assessment, February 20, 1976.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4362, f. Olympic Secretariat – Cooperation 1, Memorandum to Working Group on Security, May 16, 1973.The Montreal Olympic committee alone employed approximately 23,000 people. Howell, The Montreal Olympics (see note 6 above), 9.Leonard Morris, "Our task, gentlemen, is to defend in the name of Canada and Mr. Drapeau, a running track, a swimming pool and 1400 porta-toilets against the forces of evil." Vancouver Sun, February 25, 1976 (political cartoon).LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4363, f. Summer Olympics Olympic Secretariat Cooperation volume 6, Plannification et Preparation de la Sécurité pour les Jeux Olympiques de 1976, July 27, 1977.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4874, f. Estimates-Supplement, Program Memorandum to Solicitor General, 1974–1975.LAC, RCMP, RG149, volume 4361, f. Policy Security Screening, Memorandum Security Screening, March 24, 1976.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4362, f. Olympic Secretariat – Cooperation 1, Memorandum to Working Group on Security, May 16, 1973.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4359, f. Wallet Attachments, Final Report Security Service, 1976.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4359, f. Wallet Attachments, Final Report Security Service, 1976.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4359, f. Wallet Attachments, Final Report Security Service, 1976.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4363, f. Summer Olympics volume 6, Historical and Chronological Olympic Security Facts, n.d.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4362, f. Olympic Secretariat Cooperation, Olympic Games Security Planning (Cabinet Document 525/73), 1973.Some estimates indicate that thirty to forty people sought asylum in Munich. One RCMP report notes that the Munich organizers claimed as many as 119 sought asylum. LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4363, f. Olympic Secretariat Cooperation, Final Report "A" Division Security Service Planning, September 14, 1976.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4362, f. Olympic Secretariat Cooperation, Olympic Games Security Planning (Cabinet Document 525/73), 1973.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4367, f. Cabinet Committee on Security and Intelligence – Planning & Threats, Security Assessment Royal Visit, February 20, 1976.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4359, f. Wallet Attachments, Final Report Security Service, 1976.A spokesperson for the PLO stated publicly that there would be no attempt to disrupt the Montreal Olympics. LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4367, f. Cabinet Committee on Security and Intelligence – Planning & Threats, Security Assessment, February 20, 1976.On the RCMP and Quebec, see Reg Whitaker, Gregory S. Kealey, and Andrew Parnaby, Secret Service: Political Policing in Canada from the Fenians to Fortress America (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2012), chapter 9.Marcel Martel, "'Riots' at Sir George Williams: Construction of a Social Conflict in the Sixties," in CHA Conference, ed. Marcel Martel (York University, 2006).LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4249, f. Black Power, General Conditions and Subversive Activities Among Negroes, February 17, 1976; LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4249, f. Black Power, Deputy-Director General (Ops) to Commanding Officers A and H Division (Black Power), February 6, 1974.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4362, f. Olympic Secretariat – Cooperation 1, Memorandum to Working Group on Security, May 16, 1973; LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4363, f. Olympic Secretariat Progress Report volume 3, National Civil Aviation Security Committee Meeting (Appendix B), March 3, 1976.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4367, f. Cabinet Committee on Security and Intelligence – Planning & Threats, Security Assessment, February 20, 1976; Canadian Press, "Canada Trying to Avoid any Rift Over Bombing of Montreal Mission," Toronto Star, April 6, 1972. According to an RCMP memorandum, "the Cuban exile organizations should receive prime consideration as a potential source of embarrassment to the Government, as they have demonstrated their capability in committing acts of sabotage, nationally and internationally." LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4367, f. Cabinet Committee on Security Intelligence Planning & Threats, memorandum security threat estimates, June 25, 1975.The RCMP was concerned that the Jewish Defence League might engage in violence against Palestinians visiting Canada during the games. In contrast, the threat from the Western Guard was an embarrassment to black athletes arising from criminal activities such as hate mail. LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4363, f. Quarterly Report to the Interdepartmental Committee, Threat Assessment 8th Status Report, September 18, 1976.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4362, f. Olympic Secretariat – Cooperation 1, Memorandum to Working Group on Security, May 16, 1973. COJO also rejected a request from local Aboriginal peoples to host an Indian Days cultural program out of concern that it would facilitate demonstrations or protests. Janice Forsyth, "Teepees and Tomahawks: Aboriginal Cultural Representation at the 1976 Olympic Games," in Robert Barney, Scott G. Martyn, and Kevin B. Wamsley, eds., The Global Nexus Engaged: Past, Present, Future interdisciplinary Olympic Studies (London: International Centre for Olympic Studies, 2002), 72.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4364, f. training, Assistant "J" Division CIB Officer to Commanding Officer "J" Division (Border Patrols), February 4, 1976.LAC LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4358, f. Wallet, National Security Plan, 1976. La Sécurité Publique des Jeux Olympiques, 37.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4363, f. Quarterly Report to the Interdepartmental Committee, Contingency Planning, October 5, 1976.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4359, f. Wallet Attachments, Final Report Security Service, 1976. Early estimates in 1975 were 65,000 security checks. LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 5867, memorandum security screening, 1975.COJO. 1978. Montréal 1976: Official Report, Volume 1, 567."In view of the Munich incident in 1972 and other terrorist actions around the world where hostages have been taken for various criminal and politically motivated reasons it is essential that personal protection be afforded to athletes and team officials of the XXI Olympiad, while in Canada during the Official period of the Games." LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4358, f. Wallet, National Security Plan, 1976. "As the Olympic Villages will be one of the few venues where entire delegations are gathered together at one time, these Olympic installations are considered a prime target for any terrorist action …. Virtually all Olympic security forces will, in varying degrees, have an involvement with the Olympic Village security.".Comité Organisateur des Jeux Olympiques (COJO). 1978. Montréal 1976: Official Report, Volume 1, 566.Comité Principal de Sécurité Publique des Jeux Olympiques (CPSPJO). 1976. La Sécurité Publique des Jeux Olympiques, 159.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4364, f. Security Service Manpower Requirements, Memorandum Olympic duties & Royal Visit, May 14, 1976.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4874, f. Wallet Final Report, RCMP Final Report, 1976.Cottrell, "The Legacy of Munich 1972: Terrorism, Security and the Olympic Games" (see note 10 above), 310.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4358, f. Wallet, National Security Plan, 1976.Other vital points included the administrative offices of the Olympic committee; the Montreal aqueduct; communications systems including Bell Canada and Radio Canada; and transportation systems such as rail lines. CPSPJO. 1976. La Sécurité Publique des Jeux Olympiques, 39.Organisateur des Jeux Olympiques (COJO). 1978. Montréal 1976: Official Report, Volume 1, 576–568.Statutes of Canada, 1976, Temporary Immigration Security Act, c.91; LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4358, f. Wallet, National Security Plan, 1976.The Security Service's proposed criteria, which was later adopted by Cabinet in a more expansive version, read as follows: "(1) Any person who is a member of a terrorist organization or any organization that advocates or is capable of acts, of violence. (2) any person who by his words or actions shows himself to support any organization or person who publicly or, privately advocates practices the use of violence. In all cases, any reasonable doubt to the security status of the applicant will be decided in favour of the peaceful staging of the XXI Olympiad." LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 5867, f. Brief – Olympic Secretariat D Operation Background Material, Confidential Re. Summer Olympics 1976 Policy Security Screening, January 17, 1975; LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4367, f. Cabinet Committee on Security and Intelligence – Planning & Threats, Revised Criteria for the Exclusion of Immigrants and Non-Immigrants on Security Grounds, May 15, 1975.COJO. 1978. Montréal 1976: Official Report, Volume 1, 572. Steve Kowch, "Police Scalp Scalpers with new Games Squad," The Gazette, July 26, 1976; Lawrence Martin, "Montreal Police Train for Olympic Pickpockets," The Globe and Mail, May 3, 1976.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4364, f. Wallet Final Reports, Post Olympic Report "O" Division, September 14, 1976; LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4363, f. Olympic Secretariat Cooperation with Canadian Forces, Final Report DND Olympic Liaison Officer Operation Gamescan, August 10, 1976.Gordon Barthos, "Olympic Site Blacklists 300," Montreal Gazette, May 27, 1975.Guy Toupin, La Sécurité Publique des Jeux Olympiques (Montreal: Comité Principal de Sécurité Publique des Jeux Olympiques, 1976), 10.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4359, f. Wallet Attachments, Final Report Security Service, 1976.Comités d'Organisation des Jeux Olympiques, Montréal 1976: Official Report, ed. COJO, vol. 1 (Montreal: COJO, 1976), 571; Howell, The Montreal Olympics (see note 6 above), 184.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4359, f. Wallet Attachments, Final Report Security Service, 1976.Most recently, this figure was cited in: Fussey et al., Securing and Sustaining the Olympic City (see note 5 above), 179. Various declarations from public officials, as well as media reports, regarding security costs ranged from $80 to $100 million. However, these sums were broad estimates that were never based on evidence. It is also unclear if this sum includes salaries that would have been paid irrespective of the Olympics. In contrast, the figures noted here are based on the reports and budgets produced by the RCMP and DND, and were recently released under the Access to Information Act. LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4872, f. 1980 Olympics Task Force, Memorandum Deputy Commissioner to Director Protective Policing, January 28, 1980. Commission d'enquête sur le coût de la 21e olympiade. Québec, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Cost of the 21st Olympiad, vol. 1 (Quebec: Queen's Printer, 1980), 28–29. House of Commons, Hansard, vol. 4 (1975), 6962. Bill Kokesch, "Games Security Screen 'a Tremendous Success,'" The Gazette, August 2, 1976; Eddie Collister, "Planning for a Possible Nightmare: Security Will be the Tightest Ever," The Gazette, July 16, 1976.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4874, f. Wallet Final Report, RCMP Final Report, 1976.These figures do not include salaries for RCMP or DND personnel, which would have been paid irrespective of the Olympics.The cost to the Montreal police was mainly for salaries since COJO paid for security equipment such as radios. Steve Kowch, "Olympic Police Costs Rated at $8 million," The Gazette, July 16, 1974.The expense for policing the Olympics in Ontario, not including costs to municipal police, was $1.9 million according to media reports. The Wintario program's budget—as stated in Public Accounts—confirms a transfer of $1,300,800 for "Olympic projects," most of which (according to statements from the Solicitor General) was for policing. Government of Ontario, Public Accounts, volume 2 (Toronto: Queen's Printer, 1976–1977): 453. Mary Trueman, "Ontario Will Spend $1.9 million on Police for Olympic Games," The Globe and Mail, June 18, 1976. Ontario also paid over a million dollars to hire private helicopters to help deal with forest fires during the Olympics. Under normal circumstances the province could depend on military assistance, but the army gave priority for its helicopters to Olympic security. Robert Williamson, "Military Copters Couldn't Leave Games Duties to Fight Ontario Fires," The Globe and Mail, June 15, 1975.The DND budget for 8940 soldiers was $21 million dollars. The combined Montreal and Quebec police force assigned for security during the Olympics was only 2746, and DND would have incurred far greater costs for transportation and equipment. There were also Toronto and Ontario provincial police assigned to the sailing competitions in Kingston, but they were a marginal force compared to Quebec. It is highly unlikely the cost to local police forces was more than half the DND budget. It is also worth nothing that the Commission of Inquiry into the Cost of the 21st Olympiad estimated that provincial and municipal governments incurred costs of approximately $33 million for the Olympics. Policing would only constitute a small part of this amount. Howell, The Montreal Olympics (see note 6 above), 181. Québec, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Cost of the 21st Olympiad (see note 85 above), 1, 28–29.The precise cost, according to the commission of inquiry into the cost of the Olympics, was $1,646,000,000. Québec, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Cost of the 21st Olympiad (see note 85 above), 1, 29.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4363, f. Quarterly Report to the Interdepartmental Committee, Contingency Planning, October 5, 1976.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4364, f. Security Service – Manpower Requirements, Memorandum Security Service deployment of establishment security service officer's level, April 22, 1976. Whitaker, Kealey, and Parnaby, Secret Service (see note 55 above), 276.LAC, RCMP RG146, volume 4363, f. Olympic Secretariat Cooperation [redacted] Ops, Inspector F. J. Bossé to Officer Security Service (re. surveillance services planning), March 11, 1975.In addition to equipment listed throughout various RCMP reports, see also: CPSPJO. 1976. La Sécurité Publique des Jeux Olympiques, 44, 105–106.Fussey et al., Securing and Sustaining the Olympic City (see note 5 above), 179.CCTV cameras are hardly mentioned at all in the security planning documents. Even by 1981, there were only a handful of places in Canada where the RCMP had installed close-circuit television cameras, such as Parliament Hill and the National Arts Centre. LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4873, f. estimates-security service-economic summit, Memorandum from Special Events Section to Officer i/c "D" Operations, February 2, 1981.Only a single violent incident was reported: a man throwing a Molotov cocktail at a building for reasons unrelated to the games. Howell, The Montreal Olympics (see note 6 above), 84–85. CPSPJO. 1976. La Sécurité Publique des Jeux Olympiques, 227–230.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4363, f. Olympic Secretariat Cooperation with Canadian Forces, Final Report DND Olympic Liaison Officer Operation Gamescan, August 10, 1976.See, for instance, Phil Boyle and Kevin D. Haggerty, "Spectacular Security: Mega-Events and the Security Complex," International Political Sociology 3, no. 2 (2006): 257–274; Phil Boyle and Kevin D. Haggerty, "Privacy Games: The Vancouver Olympics, Privacy and Surveillance," (Edmonton, 2009).LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4359, f. Wallet Attachments, Final Report Security Service, 1976.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4368, f. CIB Surveillance, physical security briefing program, 1974.COILs was operational from November 10, 1975 to August 18, 1976. LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4359, f. Wallet Attachments, Final Report Security Service, 1976.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4362, f. Olympic Secretariat Cooperation, Olympic Games Security Planning (Cabinet Document 525/73), 1973."One of the most important segments of these controls implemented specifically for the Olympics was the modernized Micro-Fiche Lookout System containing approximately 16,000 names and aliases of undesirables, criminals and terrorists who were of interest to Canadian authorities." LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4359, f. Wallet Attachments, Final Report Security Service, 1976.The program was temporarily suspended immediately after the Olympics. LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4359, f. Wallet Attachments, Final Report Security Service, 1976.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4363, f. Olympics Secretariat Cooperation with [redacted] Ops, memorandum Superintendent Begalki to Corporal [redacted], June 27, 1974.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4359, f. Wallet Attachments, Final Report Security Service, 1976.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4874, f. Wallet Final Report, RCMP Final Report, 1976.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4359, f. Wallet Attachments, Final Report Security Service, 1976.The conflict games highlighted a general lack of understanding of each police force's roles and jurisdictional responsibilities.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4359, f. Wallet Attachments, Final Report Security Service, 1976.Translated by author from: "chacun de bénéficier des methods de travail diversifies des différents organisms impliqués dans ce projet et à la même occasion a renforcé et les principes de collaboration entre ces organismes et les liens d'amitié entre leurs members." CPSPJO. 1976. La Sécurité Publique des Jeux Olympiques, 139.Ibid., 160.Ibid., 186.Ibid., 202.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4363, f. Olympic Secretariat Cooperation with Canadian Forces, Final Report DND Olympic Liaison Officer Operation Gamescan, August 10, 1976.Whitaker, Kealey, and Parnaby, Secret Service (see note 55 above), 537–538. See also Steve Hewitt, Spying 101: The RCMP's Secret Activities at Canadian Universities, 1917–1997 (Toronto: University of Toronto, 2002).Steve Hewitt and Christabelle Sethna, "Sex Spying: The RCMP Framing of English-Canadian Women's Liberation Groups during the Cold War," in Lara Campbell, Dominique Clément, and Greg Kealey, eds., Debating Dissent: Canada and the Sixties (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2012). Furthermore, Hewitt and Sethna argue that, in the context of the RCMP's surveillance of the women's movement, the police "remained trapped in an anti-communist framework, and sought only to link women's liberationists to Trotskyists and other radicals." Ibid., 137, 48.Fussey et al., Securing and Sustaining the Olympic City (see note 5 above), 39.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4363, f. Olympic Secretariat Cooperation with [redacted] Agencies, Classified Memorandum, August 30, 1976.Jon Coaffee and David Murakami Wood, "Security is Coming Home: Rethinking Scale and Constructing Resilience in the Global Urban Response to Terrorist Risk," International Relations 20, no. 2 (2006): 513.Curiously, according to the official report, security for the 1980 Lake Placid Winter Olympics depended primarily on 900 New York State troopers (with support from 15 state and 11 federal agencies) at a cost of a mere $8 million. Organizing Committee for the XIII Olympic Winter Games Lake Placid. 1980. Final Report, 166–170.Security for the Athens (2004), Beijing (2008), and London (2012) Olympics all cost over $1 billion. The 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics' security costs were just shy of this mark, but security at the Sochi Olympics in 2014 will almost certainly have cost over $1 billion. Of course, a major factor in these rising costs is the 9/11 terror attacks. However, security costs were already rising: security in Atlanta cost $87 million in 1996, and $128 million in Sydney in 2000. The exception is Barcelona, where security costs in 1992 were an estimated $65 million. The problem with many of these figures is that they are based on published reports. These amounts have not been confirmed through access to official records. Jennings, Olympic Risks (see note 14 above), 37.LAC, RCMP, RG146, volume 4376, f. 1980 Olympics Task Force, Memorandum from Director Protective Policing to Deputy Commissioner CPS, January 28, 1980.Additional informationNotes on contributorsDominique ClémentDominique Clément is an Associate Professor in the Department of Sociology at the University of Alberta. He is the author or editor of several books including Canada's Rights Revolution, Equality Deferred, Alberta's Human Rights Story, Debating Dissent, and www.HistoryOfRights.ca.
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