Their Body is Different, Our Body is Different: European and Tahitian Navigators in the 18th Century
2005; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 16; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/02757200500116105
ISSN1477-2612
Autores Tópico(s)Maritime and Coastal Archaeology
ResumoAbstract This paper examines exchanges of navigational knowledge between Tahitian navigators and European explorers in the mid‐18th century. Although Tahitian and European sailors accomplished way‐finding at sea in ways based on very divergent assumptions about the ocean, the cosmos and persons, Tahitian navigators were able to board European ships, and pilot them safely through the islands. At first each side drew upon their own familiar practices to make sense of the other; using ostension or pointing, linguistic exchange and experience of each other's vessels as bridgeheads to produce a kind of rough intelligibility. Much was lost, however, in these partial and approximate exchanges. Here, exchanges between European and Tahitian sailors and their very different knowledge systems are used to explore the intricacies of cross‐cultural encounters. Keywords: NavigationTahitiVoyagingCross‐Cultural Encounter Notes [1] For accounts of Pacific navigation, see Finney (1976 Finney, B. R., ed. 1976. Pacific Navigation and Voyaging, Wellington: Polynesian Society. [Google Scholar], 1979 Finney, B. R., ed. 1979. Hokule'a: The Way to Tahiti, New York: Dodd Mead. [Google Scholar], 2000 Finney, B. R. 2000. "Nautical Cartography and Traditional Navigation in Oceania". In Cartography in the Traditional African, American, Arctic, Australian and Pacific Societies, Edited by: Woodward, D. and Lewis, G. M. Vol. 3, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [Google Scholar]), Gell (1985 Gell, A. 1985. "How to Read a Map: Remarks on the Practical Logic of Navigation". Man, 2: 271–286. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]), Gladwin (1979 Gladwin, T. 1979. East is a Big Bird: Navigation and Logic on Puluwat Atoll, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. [Google Scholar]), Howe (in preparation), Hutchins (1995 Hutchins, E. 1995. Cognition in the Wild, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. [Google Scholar]), Irwin (1994 Irwin, G. 1994. Prehistoric Exploration and Colonisation of the Pacific, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar]), Levison et al. (1973 Levison, M., Ward, R. G. and Webb, J. W. 1973. The Settlement of Polynesia: A Computer Simulation, Canberra: Australian National University Press. [Google Scholar]), Lewis (1967 Lewis, D. 1967. Daughters of the Wind, London: Gollancz. [Google Scholar], 1972 Lewis, D. 1972. We, the Navigators, Canberra: Australian National University Press. [Google Scholar], 1978 Lewis, D. 1978. The Voyaging Stars: Secrets of the Pacific Island Navigators, London: Collins. [Google Scholar]) and Taonui (1994 Taonui, R. 1994. Haerenga Waka: Polynesian Origins, Migrations and Navigation, University of Auckland. MA thesis [Google Scholar]). [2] An excellent account of the arioi in Tahitian and English is given by Rev. John Orsmond in his unpublished manuscript The Arioi Wars in Tahiti, Mitchell Library, Sydney, MS A2608. [3] For an account of these migrations, see the unpublished manuscript history of Tahiti by Rev. R. Thomson, an English missionary in Tahiti, who died in 1857, pp.13–17. Since he was able to interview old people who were alive at the time of the Dolphin's arrival at Tahiti, his account of events from the 1740s onward is one of the most reliable available; however, the even earlier account given by Morrison, one of the Bounty mutineers, is also very valuable. Thomson names Tupaia as the priest of 'Oro who took the image of the god and the red feather girdle to Papara (p. 16 of the manuscript) who later became Purea's "paramour" (p. 36), describing him as "Tupaia, the priest of Oro who had accompanied the God from Raiatea, and who is reputed by the people themselves, as well as by Cook to have been one of the cleverest men of the island" (p. 38, ATL Micro Ms Coll 2 Reel 169, London Missionary Society M660). [4] For illuminating reflections upon the first encounters between Melanesians and Europeans in Papua New Guinea, and the islanders' lack of surprise, see Strathern (1990 Strathern, M. 1990. "Artefacts of History: Events and the Interpretation of Images". In Culture and History in the Pacific Edited by: Siikala, J. 25–43. The Finnish Anthropological Society (Transactions no. 27) [Google Scholar]). [5] For accounts of the Dolphin's voyage, see Robertson (1955 Robertson, G. 1955. An Account of the Discovery of Tahiti, from the Journal of George Robertson, Master of H.M.S. Dolphin, Edited by: Warner, O. London: Folio Society. [Google Scholar]) Rowe (1955 Rowe, N. 1955. Voyage to the Amorous Islands: The Discovery of Tahiti, London: Andre Deutsch. [Google Scholar]) and contemporary records held by Public Records Office in London: Captain Wallis's journal (Mss Adm 55/35), records kept by Lieutenant William Clarke (Adm 51/4538/97), Francis Wilkinson (Adm 51/4541/95‐6), William Luke (Adm 51/4541/107‐108), Anonymous (Adm 51/4541/123‐4), Benjamin Butler (Adm 51/4541/125), George Pinnock (Adm 51/4542/109‐10), Henry Ibbott (Adm 51/4542/111‐2), Tobias Furneaux (Adm 51/4542/113‐4), William Hambly (Adm 4542/126‐7), George Robertson, Master (Adm 51/4539/102‐6), Pender (Adm 51/4543/115‐6), Samuel Horsnail (Adm 51/4543/117‐9), Thomas Coles (Adm 51/4543/128), John Nichols (Adm 51/4544/129), Anonymous (Adm 51/4544/131) and West (Adm 51/4544/132), and the Muster Roll of the Dolphin (Adm 36/7580). Many of the men were ill during their stay in Tahiti (including Captain Wallis) and their journal entries for Tahiti were written after the events described, so that dates and details given for particular episodes are often in disagreement. On the whole, I have relied on the excellent account given by George Robertson, the ship's master, for the basic chronology of events during the Dolphin's stay on the island. [6] For an excellent later account of these events see Adams (1901). Other, slightly different versions are given by Morrison, one of the Bounty mutineers (Rutter, 1937 Rutter, O., ed. 1937. The Log of the Bounty, London: Golden Cockerel Press. [Google Scholar], Thomson, nd). The most authoritative general discussion is in Oliver (1974 Oliver, D. 1974. Ancient Tahitian Society, Vol. 1, Canberra: Australian National University Press. [Google Scholar]). [7] For accounts of James Cook's life and the Endeavour voyage, see Beaglehole (1955 Beaglehole, J. C. 1955. The Journals of Captain James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery: Vol. 1. The Voyage of the Endeavour 1768–1771, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar], 1974 Beaglehole, J. C. 1974. The Life of Captain James Cook, London: Hakluyt Society. [Google Scholar]), Hough (1995 Hough, R. 1995. Captain James Cook: A Biography, London: Hodder and Stoughton. [Google Scholar]), Rae (1997 Rae, J. 1997. Captain James Cook Endeavours, London: Stepney Historical Trust. [Google Scholar]) and Villiers (1967 Villiers, A. 1967. Captain Cook, the Seamen's Seaman: A Study of the Great Discoverer, London: Hodder and Stoughton. [Google Scholar]). Beaglehole gives an excellent description of the crew, and a meticulous account of the preparations for the voyage. For primary sources see also James Cook (PRO Adm 55/40, BM Add Mss 27955, 27885), Ship's Log (BM Add Ms 8959), Zachary Hick (PRO Adm 51/4546/147‐148), Log in the Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, W. B. Monkhouse (BM Add Ms 27889), Robert Molyneux (PRO Adm 51/4546/152, Adm 55/39), Richard Pickersgill (Adm 51/4547/140‐141), Francis Wilkinson (Adm 51/4547/149‐150), Stephen Forwood (Adm 51/4545/133), James Bootie (Adm 51/4546/134‐135), Jonathan Monkhouse (Mitchell Library Log), Charles Clerke (Adm 51/4548/143‐144), Anonymous (Adm 51/4547/153, Adm 51/4548/154, Adm 51/4548/155), Joseph Banks's journal (Auckland Public Library Grey Mss 47‐75) and Charles Green (PRO Adm 51/4545/151); see also Marra (1967 Marra, J. 1967. A Journal of a Voyage Round the World in H.M.S, Endeavour, Amsterdam: Nico Israel. [Google Scholar]) and Parkinson (1773 Parkinson, S. 1773. A Journal of a Voyage to the South Seas in His Majesty's Ship, The Endeavour, London: for Stanfield Parkinson. [Google Scholar]). [8] See Henry's (1928 Henry, T. 1928. Ancient Tahiti, Honolulu: Bishop Museum Bulletin. [Google Scholar]) discussion of two dolls given by a Russian navigator to a high chieftainess, who treasured them as the representations of two deceased women from her own family. [9] It could be worth checking whether Tahitian dyes, rather than English watercolours, were used for any of Tupaia's paintings. [10] See Parkinson's (1773 Parkinson, S. 1773. A Journal of a Voyage to the South Seas in His Majesty's Ship, The Endeavour, London: for Stanfield Parkinson. [Google Scholar]) account of dyeing cloth. The Quaker artist also had himself tattooed, so his interest in Tahitian art was genuine. It is also interesting to note William Wales's comment after his first visit to Tahiti during the second voyage: "Since Europeans have come amongst them they sometimes print [bark‐cloth] in diverse figures by diping the End of a Bambo, cut properly, into the juice, in imitation of our Handkerchiefs; but they seldom ever wear it thus printed (in checkers?) themselves, at least I never saw them do it" (Beaglehole, 1969 Beaglehole, J. C. 1969. The Journals of Captain Cook Vol 2: The Voyage of the Resolution and Adventure 1772–1775, Cambridge: University Press for the Hakluyt Society. [Google Scholar]: 799). [11] For accounts of British navigation in the 18th century, Taylor (1968 Taylor, E. G. R. 1968. "Navigation in the Days of Captain Cook". The Journal of the Institute of Navigation, 21: 256–276. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and May (1973 May, W. E. 1973. A History of Marine Navigation, Henley‐on‐Thames, , UK: G. T. Foulis and Co. Ltd.. [Google Scholar]). [12] For an intriguing discussion of the work that charts and maps do, see Turnbull (1993 Turnbull, D. 1993. Maps are Territories: Science is an Atlas, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [Google Scholar]). [13] See Cook in Beaglehole (1955 Beaglehole, J. C. 1955. The Journals of Captain James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery: Vol. 1. The Voyage of the Endeavour 1768–1771, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar]: 157). John Beaglehole, and, most recently, Nicholas Thomas (1977 Thomas, N. 1997. In Oceania: Visions, Artifacts, Histories, Durham, CT: Duke University Press. [Google Scholar], 2001 Thomas, N. 2001. "Cook and Tupaia, a Tale of Cartographic Meconnaissance?". In Science and Exploration in the Pacific: European Voyages to the Southern Oceans in the Eighteenth Century, Edited by: Lincoln, M. Woodbridge, , UK: National Maritime Museum. [Google Scholar]), Ben Finney (2000 Finney, B. R. 2000. "Nautical Cartography and Traditional Navigation in Oceania". In Cartography in the Traditional African, American, Arctic, Australian and Pacific Societies, Edited by: Woodward, D. and Lewis, G. M. Vol. 3, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [Google Scholar]) and David Turnbull (2000 Turnbull, D. 2000. "(En‐)countering Knowledge Traditions: The Story of Cook and Tupaia". Humanities Research, : 1 [Google Scholar]) have all discussed Tupaia's chart at length, pointing out a basic misunderstanding over Polynesian directional terms in its construction, identifying the islands and assessing its accuracy and significance. Thomas (2001 Thomas, N. 2001. "Cook and Tupaia, a Tale of Cartographic Meconnaissance?". In Science and Exploration in the Pacific: European Voyages to the Southern Oceans in the Eighteenth Century, Edited by: Lincoln, M. Woodbridge, , UK: National Maritime Museum. [Google Scholar]) asks why this chart, "an extraordinary … document that fuses an indigenous perception of the world with the moralizing cartography of the Enlightenment" has been so little remarked on, claiming that it presents "Tupaia's vision … in its integrity." (Thomas, 2001 Thomas, N. 2001. "Cook and Tupaia, a Tale of Cartographic Meconnaissance?". In Science and Exploration in the Pacific: European Voyages to the Southern Oceans in the Eighteenth Century, Edited by: Lincoln, M. Woodbridge, , UK: National Maritime Museum. [Google Scholar]: 4) The chart, though, incorporates Cook's understanding of the locations of some Pacific islands in addition to what Tupaia had to say, and is thus much more mediated than his paintings.
Referência(s)