Debating Russia's Choice between Great Britain and Germany: Count Benckendorff versus Count Lamsdorff, 1902–1906
2010; Routledge; Volume: 32; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/07075330903516082
ISSN1949-6540
Autores Tópico(s)European Political History Analysis
ResumoClick to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1 G. Ferragu, ‘Camille Barrère, “ambassadeur d'Italie”, et Delcassé’, in Delcassé et l'Europe à la veille de la grande guerre. Actes du colloque tenu à Foix les 22, 23, 24,25 octobre 1998, ed. L. Claeys et al. (Foix, 2001), p. 84. For the role of Anglo-Russian relations in the European system, see R. P. Churchill, The Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 (Cedar Rapids, 1939); K. Neilson, Britain and the Last Tsar: British Policy and Russia, 1894–1917 (Oxford, 1995); O. Airapetov, Vneshnaia politika Rossiiskoi imperii 1814–1914 (Moscow, 2006); and V. Degoev, Vneshnaia politika Rossii I mezhdunarodnye sistemy 1700–1918 (Moscow, 2004) 2 A. F. Ostaltseva, Anglo-russkoe soglasheni'ie 1907 (Saratov, 1977), p. 198. 3 R. Giroult, Diplomatie européenne et imperialismes, 1871–1914 (Paris, 1971), i. 15. 4 K. Neilson, ‘Only a D … d Marionette’? The Influence of Ambassadors on British Foreign Policy, 1904–14', in Diplomacy and World Power: Studies in British Foreign Policy, 1890–1950, ed. M. L. Dockrill and B. J. C. McKercher (Cambridge, 1996), p. 70. 5 M. Hughes, Diplomacy before the Russian Revolution: Britain, Russia, and the Old Diplomacy, 1894–1917 (New York, 2000), pp. 53–4. 6 See, e.g., B. C. Busch, Hardinge of Penshurst: A Study in the Old Diplomacy (Hamden, CT, 1980); K. Hamilton, Bertie of Thames: Edwardian Ambassador (Woodbridge, 1990); D. H. Burton, Cecil Spring Rice: a Diplomat's Life (Rutherford, 1990; H. Nicolson, Sir Arthur Nicolson, Bart., First Lord Carnock: A Study in the Old Diplomacy (London, 1930); Z. S. Steiner, Foreign Office and Foreign Policy, 1898–1914 (New York, 1969); A. Neton, Delcassé (1852–1923) (Paris, 1952); Anon., Paul Cambon: Ambassadeur de France. (1843–1924) par un diplomate (Paris, 1937); C. Zorgbibe, Delcassé: Le grand ministre des Affaires Étrangères de la IIIe République (Paris, 2001). 7 See Rossiiskaia diplomati'ia v portretakh, ed. A. V. Ignatiev, I. S. Rybachonok, and G. A. Sanin (Moscow, 1992); also B. Jelavich, ‘Giers and the Policy of Moderation’, and D. M. McDonald ‘Izvol'skii and Russian Foreign Policy under “United Government”, 1906–10’, in New Perspectives in Modern Russian History, ed. R. McKean (New York, 1992), pp. 25–42, 174–202. 8 D. C. B. Lieven, Russia and the Origins of the First World War (Houndsmills, 1983), pp. 84–5. 9 F. Tomaszewski, A Great Russia: Russia and the Triple Entente, 1905–14 (Westport, CT, 2002) devotes half a chapter to Benckendorff's tenure in London, as seen through his reports, but ignores his private correspondence. 10 B. J. Williams, ‘The Strategic Background to the Anglo-Russian Entente of August 1907’, Historical Journal, ix (1966), 360–73. 11 A. F. Tiutcheva, Pri dvore dvukh imperatorov (Moscow [1927], 1990), p. 78. For structural analysis of the Anglo-Russian rivalry in the nineteenth century, see Kavkaz i Sredna'ia Az'ia vo vneshnei politike Rossii: vtora'ia polovina XVIII – 80e gody XIX v., ed. N. S. Kin'iapina et al. (Moscow, 1984); V. V. Degoev, Vneshna'ia politika Rossii I mezhdunarodnye sistemy (Moscow, 2004); P. W. Schroeder, ‘Containment Nineteenth-Century Style: How Russia was Restrained’, in idem, Systems, Stability, and Statecraft: Essays on the International History of Modern Europe, ed. D. Wetzel, R. Jervis, and J. S. Levy (London, 2004), pp. 121–34; E. Ingram, ‘Rivalry as Formation Dance’, in idem, The British Empire as a World Power (London, 2001), pp. 53–96; J. P. LeDonne, The Russian Empire and the World, 1700–1917: The Geopolitics of Expansion and Containment (New York, 1997). 12 Perepiska Imperatora Aleksandra II s velikim kniazem Konstantinom Nikolaevichem. Dnevnik Velikogo Kniazia Konstantina Nikolaevicha (Moscow, 1994), p. 119. 13 I. Klein, ‘The Anglo-Russian Convention and the Problem of Central Asia, 1907–14’, Journal of British Studies, xi (1971), 127. For Lytton, see also S. Gopal, British Policy in India, 1858–1905 (Cambridge, 1965), ch. 2. 14 The best short account of the misperceptions is D. Gillard, The Struggle for Asia; A Study in British and Russian Imperialism (London, 1977). 15 A. Ulunian, Balkasia i Rossia Struktura ugroz natsionalnoi bezopasnosti Rossiiskoi imperii na Balkanah, v Tsentralnoi i Perednei Azii v predstavlenii rossiiskoi voennoi i grazhdanskoi burokratii (1900–14) (Moscow, 2002), p. 63. 16 J.-B. A. Damaze de Chaudordy, La France en 1889 (Paris, 1889), p. 240. See also, J. Charmley, Splendid Isolation? Britain, the Balance of Power and the Origins of the First World War (London, 1999) and S. D. Skazkin, Konetz avstro-russko-germanskogo soyuza 1897–85 (Moscow, 1974). 17 Spring-Rice to Bertie, 23 Nov. 1902 [Richmond, United Kingdom National Archives], F[oreign] O[ffice Records] 800/176, p. 153. 18 Lamsdorff to Kapnist, 22 Jan. 1904 [Moscow], A[rkniv] V[neshnei] P[olitiki] R[ossiiskoi] I[mperii], f. 151, op. 482, ed. hr. 63, ll. 18–22 ob; courtesy of Irina Rybachonok. For Salisbury's attitude to Russia, see A. Ramm, Sir Robert Morier: Envoy and Ambassador in the Age of Imperialism, 1876–93 (Oxford, 1973), pp. 207, 209, 226. 19 Spring-Rice to Mallet, 29 Oct. 1903, FO 800/140, p. 183. 20 Lansdowne to Knollys, 25 July 1902 [Windsor], R[oyal] A[rchives], VIC/ADDC 7/2/Q; Lord Hardinge of Penshurst, Old Diplomacy: The Reminiscences of Lord Hardinge of Penshurst (London, 1947), p. 84. 21 Prince von Bülow, Memoirs, 1903–9 (London, 1931–2), ii. 153. 22 Benckendorff to Maria Feodorovna, 6 Oct. 1901 [Moscow], G[osudarstvennyi] A[rkhiv] R[ossiiskoi] F[ederatsii], f. 642, op. 1, ed. hr. 916, ll. 20–1 ob; E. Goschen, The Diary of Edward Goschen, 1900–14 (London, 1980), p. 72. 23 J.-J. Jusserand, What Me Befell: The Reminiscences of Jean-J. Jusserand (Freeport, NY, n.d.), pp. 201–3. 24 C. de Chambrun, L'esprit de la diplomatie (Paris, 1944), p. 11. 25 Scott to Lansdowne, 25 Dec. 1902, FO 800/140, p. 123. 26 Zorgbibe, Delcassé, pp. 89, 183–4; Masson to Grand Duke Nikolai Mikhailovich, 8 Sept. 1902, Au temps de l'alliance franco-russe. Correspondance entre le grand-duc Nicolas Mikhailovitch de Russie et Frédéric Masson (Paris, 2005), pp. 195–7. 27 Neton, Delcassé, p. 324. 28 Anon., Cambon, p. 243. 29 Benckendorff to Lamsdorff, private, 19 Oct. 1902, GARF, f. 568, ed. hr. 326, ll. 71–3 ob. 30 I. S. Rybachonok, ‘V. N. Lamsdorff’, in Rossiiskaia diplomati'ia v portretakh, pp. 288–9. 31 V. N. Lamsdorff, Dnevnik, 1894–6 (Moscow, 1991), pp. 378, 141. 32 Benckendorff to Lamsdorff, private, 19 Oct. 1902, GARF, f. 568, op. 1, ed. hr. 326, ll. 71–3 ob. 33 Metternich to Bülow, 9 July 1904, Bülow, Memoirs, pp. 34–5; Sir S. Lee, King Edward VII: A Biography (London, 1925), i. 729. 34 Benckendorff to Lamsdorff, private, 27 Sept. 1901, GARF, f. 568, op. 1, ed. hr. 326, ll. 25–6. 35 Benckendorff to Iswolsky, private, 27 May 1909 [Au service de la Russie: Alexandre] I[swolsky,] C[orrespondance] d[iplomatique. 1906–11] (Paris, 1937), ii. 232. 36 Nicolson, Carnock, p. 234. 37 Benckendorff to Poklevsky, 25 Dec. 1907, draft, GARF, f. 1126, op. 1, ed. hr. 10, ll. 10–15 ob. 38 Poklevsky to Savinsky, private, 28 May 1908, AVPRI, f. 340, op. 706, d. 13, ll. 324–5. 39 S. P. Benckendorff to Benckendorff, 21 Dec. 1906 [New York, NY, Bakhmetev Archive], B[enckendorff] C[ollection,] [part] 2/[box] 2. 40 Benckendorff to S. P. Benckendorff, 23 Sept. 1909, GARF, f. 1126, op. 1, d. 152, ll. 76–7 ob. 41 Benckendorff to Iswolsky, private, 7 Jan. 1909, ICD, ii. 191. 42 Benckendorff to Sazonov, private, 30 Jan. 1912, AVPRI, f. 138, op. 467, d. 707/756, ll. 204–10. 43 Baron M. de Taube, La politique russe d'avant-guerre et la fin de l'empire des tsars (1904–17) (Paris, 1928), pp. 160–1 n. 44 Sablin to Savinsky, private, 5 Dec. 1908, AVPRI, f. 340, op. 706, ed. hr. 14, ll. 172–7 ob; Grey to Benckendorff, 28 Dec. 1907, FO 800/73, p. 339. 45 J. A. Spender, Life, Journalism, and Politics (London, 1927), ii. 176. 46 Grey to Buchanan, 7 May 1914, FO 800/74, p. 275. 47 Benckendorff to S. P. Benckendorff, 18 Aug. 1912, GARF, f. 1126, op. 1, ed. hr. 153, ll. 70–1 ob. 48 Benckendorff to Lamsdorff, private, 19 April 1904, GARF, f. 597, op. 1, ed. hr. 822, ll. 1–2 ob. 49 Benckendorff to Sazonov, [n.d.], private, AVPRI, f. 184, op. 520, d. 1481, l. 16. 50 Benckendorff to Lonsdale, 13 June, Lonsdale to Benckendorff, 18 June 1910, BC 2/13; Cambon to Benckendorff, [n.d.], BC 2/12. 51 K. Neilson, ‘“My Beloved Russians”: Sir Arthur Nicolson and Russia, 1906–11’, International History Review, ix (1987), 531. 52 Benckendorff to Iswolsky, private, 24 June 1906, ICD, i. 311; same to S. P. Benckendorff, 22 Oct. [1902], GARF, f. 1126, op. 1, ed. hr. 154, ll. 94–5 53 Benckendorff to S. P. Benckendorff, n.d. [1903?], GARF, f. 1126, op. 1, ed. hr. 151, ll. 16–17. 54 S. P. Benckendorff to Benckendorff, 29 March 1906, BC 2/21. 55 Schebeko to Schilling, private, 10 March 1912, GARF, f. 813, op. 1, ed. hr. 445, ll. 58–9 ob; Neilson, ‘Beloved Russians’, p. 551. 56 Vanden-Bempde to Benckendorff, private, 20 Sept. 1902, BC 2/13. 57 Lamsdorff to Kapnist, private, 22 Jan. 1904, AVPRI, f. 151, op. 482, ed. hr. 63, ll. 18–22 ob. 58 Instructions, foreign ministry to Benckendorff, 1 Dec. 1902, in Korennye interesy Rossii glazami ee gosudarstvennykh de'yatelei, diplomatov, voennykh i publitsistov, ed. I. Rybachonok (Moscow, 2004), pp. 332–8. 59 Scott to Lansdowne, 25 Dec. 1902, FO 800/140, pp. 123–41; Lamsdorff to Kapnist, private, 22 Jan. 1904, AVPRI, f. 151, op. 482, ed. hr. 63, ll. 18–22 ob. 60 Lansdowne to Scott, 29 Dec. 1902, FO 800/140, p. 142. 61 Cambon to Delcassé, 6 Aug. 1903, D[ocuments] D[iplomatiques] F[rançais 1871–1914, séries 2] (Paris, 1931–7), ii. 520. 62 M. Bompard, Mon ambassade en Russie, 1903–8 (Paris, 1937), pp. 7–8. 63 Cambon to Delcassé, 6 Aug. 1903, DDF, ii. 520; Lansdowne to Scott, 29 July, 12 Aug. 1903, B[ritish] D[ocuments on the Origins of the War, 1898–1914], ed. G. P. Gooch and H. W. V. Temperley (London, 1926–38), ii. 212–13. 64 V. Shatzillo and L. Shatzillo, Russko-I'aponska'ia voina 1904–5 (Moscow, 2004), p. 157. 65 Benckendorff to Maria Feodorovna, 6 Sept. 1903, GARF, f. 642, op. 1, ed. hr. 916, ll. 49–51 ob. 66 Benckendorff to Lamsdorff, private, 8 Oct. 1903, GARF, f. 568, op. 1, ed. hr. 326, ll. 81a–81d. 67 S. P. Benckendorff to Benckendorff, 16 Oct. 1903, BC 2/21. 68 Benckendorff to Maria Feodorovna, 22 Oct. 1903, GARF, f. 642, ed. hr. 916, ll. 59–61 ob. 69 Lansdowne to Spring-Rice, 7 Nov. 1903, BD, iv, 183; Lansdowne to Spring-Rice, 17 Nov. 1903, ibid., p. 222; S. P. Benckendorff to Benckendorff, 21 Nov. 1903, BC 2/21. 70 Hardinge to Lansdowne, 22 Nov. 1903, BD, iv. 184. 71 Lansdowne to Spring-Rice, 25 Nov. 1903, ibid., p. 186. 72 Lansdowne to Scott, 9 Dec. 1903, RA, VIC/ADDC 7/2/Q. 73 Scott to Lansdowne, 22 Dec. 1903, BD, ii. 226. 74 I. Nish, The Origins of the Russo-Japanese War (London, 1985), p. 143; Korenn'ye interes'y Rossii, ed. Rybachonok, p. 332. 75 Lamsdorff to Kapnist, 22 Jan. 1904, private, AVPRI, f. 151, op. 482, ed. hr. 63, ll. 18–22 ob. 76 Lamsdorff to Benckendorff, private, 24 June 1904, BC 2/13. 77 Benckendorff to Lamsdorff, private, 23 Aug. 1904, GARF, f. 601, op. 1, d. 739–740, ll. 1–6; Scott to Lansdowne, 25 Dec. 1902, FO 800/140, p. 123. 78 Lamsdorff to Benckendorff, private, 24 May 1905, BC 2/13. 79 Same to same, private, 17 Oct., 11 Nov. 1904, BC 2/13. 80 Lamsdorff to Benckendorff, private, 11 Nov. 1904, BC 2/13; Hardinge to Lansdowne, 2 Nov. 1904, FO 800/141, p. 57. 81 Bompard to Delcassé, 3 Dec. 1904, DDF, iv. 561. 82 Lansdowne to Hardinge, 22 Dec. 1904, FO 800/141, p. 108. 83 Hardinge to Lansdowne, 8 Feb., 29 March 1905, FO 800/141, pp. 123, 138. 84 Brodrick to Cranley, private, 22 Feb., 31 Aug. 1905, Woking, Surrey History Centre, Onslow Papers, G 173/24/13a and 16a. 85 Benckendorff to Maria Fedorovna, 6 April 1905, draft, GARF, f. 1126, op. 1, d. 4, ll. 9–12. 86 M. A. Taube, Zarnitsy. Vospominani'ia o tragicheskoi sudbe predrevolutionnoi Rossii (1900–17) (Moscow, 2007), p. 84. 87 Lamsdorff to Benckendorff, private, 9 June 1905, BC 2/13. 88 Lamsdorff to Benckendorff, private, 18 Aug. 1905, BC 2/13. 89 D. McLean, Britain and Her Buffer State: The Collapse of the Persian Empire, 1890–1914 (London, 1979), pp. 71–2. 90 O. Airapetov, Vneshnaia politika Rossiiskoi imperii. 1801–1914 (Moscow, 2006), p. 516. For the treaty of Bjorko, see also R. J. Sontag, ‘German Foreign Policy, 1904–6’, American Historical Review, xxxiii (1928), 278–301 and B. F. Oppel, ‘The Waning of a Traditional Alliance: Russia and Germany after the Portsmouth Peace Conference’, Central European History, v (1972), 318–29. 91 S. P. Benckendorff to Benckendorff, 2 Aug. 1905, BC 2/21. 92 Wilhelm II to Nicholas II, 22 July 1905, P[erepiska] V[ilgel'ma II s] N[ikolaem II. 1894–1914] (Moscow, 2007), p. 388; Hardinge to Lansdowne, 1 Aug. 1905, BD, iv. 95. 93 Benckendorff to Maria Feodorovna, 15 and 17 Aug. 1905, draft, GARF, f. 1126, op. 1, ed. hr. 919, ll. 68–73, and ed. hr. 4, ll. 1–4. 94 A. V. Ignatiev, Vneshna'ia politika Rossii v 1905–1907 gg. (Moscow, 1986), pp. 85, 97. 95 Hardinge to Lansdowne, 9 Sept. 1905, BD, iv. 178. 96 Lamsdorff to Benckendorff, private, 15 Sept. 1905, BC 2/13. 97 Benckendorff to Nelidov, 7 Sept. 1905, draft, GARF, f. 1126, op. 1, ed. hr. 5, ll. 1–3 ob. 98 S. P. Benckendorff to Benckendorff, 26 Sept. 1905, BC 2/21; Bülow, Memoirs, ii. 38. 99 Lansdowne to Hardinge, 17 Oct. 1905, FO 800/141, p. 217; Lamsdorff to Benckendorff, private, 15 Sept. 1905, BC 2/13. 100 S. P. Benckendorff to Benckendorff, 22 Sept. 1905, BC 2/21. 101 Maria Feodorovna to Benckendorff, 29 Sept. 1905, BC 2/21. 102 Lansdowne to Hardinge, 3, 5 Oct. 1905, BD, iv, 204, 207. 103 Wilhelm II to Nicholas II, 2 Oct. 1905, PVN, p. 402. 104 Nicolson to Grey, 12 Sept. 1906, FO 800/337, p. 103; Iswolsky's diary, 22 March 1906, GARF, f. 559, op. 1, ed. hr. 86. l. 26 ob, and d. 86, l. 34. 105 Lamsdorff to Benckendorff, private, 31 Aug. 1905, BC 2/13. 106 Lamsdorff to Benckendorff, 12 Oct. 1905, ibid.; Lansdowne to Bertie, 8 Oct. 1905, FO 800/176, p. 227; Ignat'iev, Vneshna'ia politika Rossii, p. 104. 107 Nelidov to Benckendorff, private, 1 Nov. 1905, BC 2/13. 108 Cambon to H. Cambon, 8 Aug. 1905, P. Cambon, Correspondance, 1870–1924 (Paris, 1940), ii. 148. 109 Lansdowne to Bertie, 25 Oct. 1905, BD, iv. 217. 110 A. Savinsky, Recollections of a Russian Diplomat (London, n.d.), pp. 98–102. 111 Hardinge to Lansdowne, 4, 14 Oct. 1905, BD, iv. 205, 211; Bompard to Rouvier, 14 Oct. 1905, DDF, viii. 62. 112 Lamsdorff to Benckendorff, private, 29 Sept. 1905, BC 2/13. 113 Hardinge to Lansdowne, 4 Oct. 1905, BD, iv. 205. 114 Ignatiev, Vneshna'ia politika Rossii, p. 97. 115 Hardinge to Lansdowne, 21 Oct. 1905, BD, iv. 214. 116 O. Airapetov, Vneshna'ia politika Rossikskoi imperii, p. 517. 117 Bompard to Rouvier, 8 Oct. 1905, DDF, viii. 48. 118 J. Frankel, ‘The War and the Fate of the Tsarist Autocracy’, in The Impact of the Russo-Japanese War, ed. R. Kowner (London, 2006), pp. 67–9. 119 Iswolsky to Stolypin, private, 21 July 1911, ICD, ii. 299. 120 P. W. Schroeder, ‘Alliances, 1815–1945’, in idem, Systems and Statecraft, p. 213. 121 Benckendorff to Lamsdorff, 19 Sept. 1905, copy, GARF, f. 642, op. 1, ed. hr. 917, ll. 55–69 ob. 122 Svetchin to Savinsky, private, 18 Jan. 1906, AVPRI, f. 340, op. 706, ed. hr. 11, ll. 323–8 ob. 123 Rosen to Benckendorff, private, 11 Dec. 1905, BC 2/14. 124 A. F. Ostaltseva, Anglo-russkoe soglasheni'ie 1907 (Saratov, 1977), p. 143. 125 M. A. Taube, Zarnitsy. Vospominani'ia o tragicheskoi sud'be predrevolutsionnoi Rossii (1900–17) (Moscow, 2007), pp. 83–4. 126 Instructions, Lamsdorff for Benckendorff, 13 Dec. 1902, Korennye interesy, pp. 332–8; Lamsdorff to Benckendorff, private, 15 Sept. 1905, BC 2/14. 127 Boutiron to Bourgeois, 5 June 1906, DDF, x. 52. For relations with Tibet, see A. Lamb, The McMahon Line: A Study in the Relations between India, China, and Tibet, 1904–14 (London, 1966), i. pt. 2 and W. Palace, The British Empire and Tibet (London, 2005). 128 Benckendorff to Lamsdorff, private, 12 Dec. 1905, GARF, f. 601, op. 1, d. 741, l. 49. 129 Lamsdorff to Benckendorff, private, 22 Dec. 1905, BC 2/13. 130 Spring-Rice to Grey, 3 Jan. 1906, BD, iv. 219. For Witte, see A. V. Ignatiev, S. Yu. Witte – diplomat (Moscow, 1989), p. 266; R. S. Ganelin, ‘Ot manifesta 17 oktiabr'ia 1905 g. k tret'eiun'skomu perevorotu 1907 g.’, in Vlast i reformy, ed. B.V. Ananyich, R.S. Ganelin and V.M. Paneiakh (Moscow, 2006), pp. 465–9. 131 Ostaltseva, Anglo-russkoe soglasheni'ie, p. 157. 132 Lamsdorff to Benckendorff, private, 14 Jan. 1906, BC 2/13. 133 S. P. Benckendorff to Benckendorff, 3 April 1906, BC 2/21. 134 Spring-Rice to Knollys, private, 31 Jan. 1906, RA VIC/MAIN/W/48/26. 135 Spring-Rice to Grey, 26 Jan. 1906, FO 800/72, pp. 42–8; same to Mallet, 31 Jan. 1906, private, in Letters and Friendships of Sir Cecil Spring-Rice, ed. S. Gwynn (London, 1929), ii. 61. 136 I. I. Astafiev, Russko-Germanskie diplomaticheskie otnosheni'ia 1905–14 gg.(Ot portsmutskogo mira do potsdamskogo soglasheni'ia.) (Moscow, 1972), pp. 52–3. 137 Ostaltseva, Anglo-russkoe soglasheni'ie, p. 158. 138 Benckendorff to Lamsdorff, private, 25 Feb. 1906, GARF, f. 568, op. 1. d. 326, l. 119; Lamsdorff to Benckendorff, 28 Feb. 1906, BC 2/13. 139 S. P. Benckendorff to Benckendorff, 15 March 1906, BC 2/21. 140 Taube, Zarnitsy, p. 91; Boutiron to Bourgeois, 5 May 1906, DDF, x. 54. 141 Grey to Spring-Rice, 16 April 1906, Spring-Rice, ii. 72. 142 Hardinge to Lansdowne, 8 Oct. 1905, BD, xiv. 208; Spring-Rice to Grey, 3 Jan. 1906, ibid., p. 219. 143 Spring-Rice to Benckendorff, private, 5 April 1906, BC 2/14; P. Ziegler, The Sixth Great Power: Barings, 1762–1929 (London, 1988), p. 312. 144 Taube, Zarnitsy, p. 87. 145 Rosen to Benckendorff, private, 11 Dec. 1905, BC 2/14. 146 I. A. Zinoviev, Rossia, Anglia I Persia (St Petersburg, 1912), p. 158. 147 Benckendorff to Iswolsky, private, 8 Aug. 1907, ICD, ii. 82. 148 Neilson, British Policy and Russia, p. 283. 149 Benckendorff to Iswolsky, private, 27 June 1907, ICD, ii. 60. 150 P. Milza, Les relations internationales de 1871 à 1914 (Paris, 1990), p. 14; Klein, ‘Anglo-Russian Convention’, p. 127. 151 A. F. Pribram, England and the International Policy of the European Great Powers, 1871–1914 (London [1929], 1966), pp. 115–17; R. L. Greaves, ‘Some Aspects of the Anglo-Russian Convention and Its Working in Persia, 1907–14’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, xxxi (1968), 72; M. Hughes, Russia and the Old Diplomacy, p. 140; G. R. Searle, A New England? Peace and War, 1886–1918 (Oxford, 2004), p. 739. 152 See Williams, ‘Anglo-Russian Entente’, p. 360; G. L. Bondarevskii, Angliiskaia politika i mezhdunarodnye otnosheni'ia v basseine Persidskogo zaliva (konetz XIX-nachalo XX v.) (Moscow, 1968); D. W. Sweet and R. T. B. Langhorne, ‘Great Britain and Russia, 1907–14’, in British Foreign Policy under Sir Edward Grey, ed. F. H. Hinsley (Cambridge, 1977), p. 236; Neilson, British Policy and Russia, pp. 367–72; D. M. McDonald, United Government and Foreign Policy in Russia, 1900–14 (Cambridge, MA, 1992); V. A. Emets, ‘Iswolsky i reforma v rossiiskoi vneshnei politike (soglasheni'ia 1907 goda)’, in Rossiiska'ia diplomati'ia v portretakh, ed. A. V. Ignatiev et al. (Moscow, 1992), pp. 343–53; J. Siegel, Endgame: Britain, Russia, and the Final Struggle for Central Asia (London, 2002). 153 Nicolson, Carnock, p. 234; T. G. Otte, ‘“It's What Made Britain Great”: Reflections on British Foreign Policy from Malplaquet to Maastricht’, in The Makers of British Foreign Policy, ed. T. G. Otte (Basingstoke, 2002), pp. 15–16; Ignatiev, Vneshnaia politika Rossii 1907–14, pp. 58–9; N. A. Narochnitska'ya, Rossi'ia i russkie v mirovoi istorii (Moscow, 2003), pp. 175–6; I. S. Rybachonok, Rossia i pervaia konferentsia mira 1899 goda v Gaage (Moscow, 2005), p. 280. 154 A. M. Zaionchkovskii, Podgotovka Rossii k mirovoi voine v mezhdunarodnom otnoshenii (Moscow, 1926). 155 Ostal'tseva, Anglo-russkoe soglasheni'ie, pp. 241–2; Emets, ‘Iswolsky’, passim; McDonald, Foreign Policy in Russia, pp. 76–102. 156 Ignatiev, Vneshnaia politika Rossii, pp. 107–11. 157 Taube, La politique russe, p. 140. 158 Ostaltseva, Anglo-russkoe soglasheni'ie, p. 241. 159 Memo, Durnovo, Feb. 1914, in Imperial Russia: A Source Book, 1700–1917, ed. B. Dmytryshin (New York [1927], 1990), p. 495; Yu. Soloviov, Vospominaniia diplomata, 1893–1922 (Minsk [1928], 2003), p. 198. For the way in which the Triple Entente aggravated the systemic challenge to the Dual Alliance, see P. W. Schroeder, ‘World War I as Galloping Gertie: A Reply to Joachim Remak’, in idem, Systems and Statecraft, pp. 137–56. Additional informationNotes on contributorsMarina SorokaI thank Neville Thompson, Edward Ingram, and Keith Neilson for helpful criticism. All dates are given according to the Gregorian calendar. The Julian calendar, in use in Russia, was thirteen days behind. Material from the Royal Archives is cited by gracious permission of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II.
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