Into the grey zone: Wehrmacht bystanders, German labor market policy and the Holocaust
2008; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 10; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/14623520802305743
ISSN1469-9494
Autores Tópico(s)European history and politics
ResumoAbstract In 1941, German troops occupied the city of Vilnius. Mass killings started immediately, reducing the Jewish population by 70% by the end of the year. In the following two years, genocidal action ceased nearly altogether due to the effects of increasing labor shortages. Since neither Soviet POWs nor Lithuanian gentiles were available in sufficient numbers, German offices had to resort to the remaining Jewish workforce. This article explores the cases of three German officers who used economic rationale extensively in order to save their workers from mass murder. Their efforts testify to the scope of action that was open to minor Wehrmacht officers in the occupied territories. By highlighting the institutional background against which these men were able to provide help to Jews some tentative conclusions about how passive bystanders turned into active rescuers shall be drawn. Since the historian's insight into individual motivations is often frustrated by the limited availability and reliability of sources, this article stresses the impact of situational factors. By drawing on sociopsychological research the essay argues that the risks the Wehrmacht rescuers had to take not only remained fairly limited but were also marked by ambiguity. Rather than opting for outright resistance, at least two of the three men remained within a "grey zone" of moral compromise which, however, was vital to the success of their rescue efforts. Acknowledgements This essay has a long history of its own and the author gladly acknowledges the contribution the "Plagge research group" made to its genesis. He is deeply indebted to the painstaking research the members of the group have undertaken in order to shed light on Karl Plagge's life with the help of survivors' memoirs, documents, and photographs. Likewise he is grateful to two anonymous referees of the Journal of Genocide Research, whose comments helped to improve his line of reasoning, and to Therese Teutsch for proofing his English. The essay partially draws on previous research but builds on a much broader base of archival sources as well as on a different analytical framework. Notes For the denazification policy in the US occupational zone, see Lutz Niethammer, Die Mitläuferfabrik. Die Entnazifizierung am Beispiel Bayerns, 2nd ed. (Bonn and Berlin: Dietz, 1982). Hessisches Hauptstaatsarchiv Wiesbaden, Abt. 520 D-Z Nr. 519.760, Spruchkammerakte Karl Plagge (henceforth referred to as HHStA+document), Minutes, 9.2.1948, fol. 9; interview of Konrad Hesse by the author, July 4, 2001. For a similar case, see Kurt R. Grossmann, Die unbesungenen Helden. Menschen in Deutschlands dunklen Tagen, 2nd ed. (Berlin: arani, 1961), p 164. When details of Plagge's story first spread in 2001, public interest increased rapidly. A great number of newspaper articles as well as several TV documentaries portrayed the "Schindler from Darmstadt"; for a summary of both Plagge's deeds and his posthumous career see the account from the perspective of the survivors and their families: Michael D. Good, The Search for Major Plagge. The Nazi who Saved Jews (New York: Fordham University Press, 2005). Accounts of rescuers during the Holocaust are abundant although most of them are anecdotal rather than analytic; cf. Martin Gilbert, The Righteous. The Unsung Heroes of the Holocaust (London: Doubleday, 2002); the most authoritative collection with a wealth of references is The Encyclopedia of the Righteous Among the Nations: Rescuers of Jews during the Holocaust, ed.-in-chief Israel Gutman (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2003). For German rescuers, see the unfinished research project by Manfred Wolfson, "Zum Widerstand gegen Hitler: Umriß eines Gruppenportäts deutscher Retter von Juden," in: Joachim Hu¨tter, Reinhard Meyers and Dietrich Papenfuss (Eds.), Tradition und Neubeginn. Internationale Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte im 20. Jahrhundert (Cologne: Heymanns, 1975), pp 391–407. Recently excerpts from the Wolfson Collection have been published: Beate Kosmala and Revital Ludewig-Kedmi (Eds.), Verbotene Hilfe. Deutsche Retterinnen und Retter während des Holocaust (Zu¨rich: Auer, 2003); cf. Beate Kosmala and Claudia Schoppmann (Eds.), U¨berleben im Untergrund. Hilfe fu¨r Juden in Deutschland 1941–1945 (Berlin: Metropol, 2002). Raul Hilberg was among the first to identify bystanders as one of three groups of protagonists in the murder of European Jewry, adopting the term along with its institutional rather than individual meaning from Michael Marrus, The Holocaust in History (London: Penguin, 1987), pp 156–183; cf. Raul Hilberg, Perpetrators, Victims, Bystanders. The Jewish Catastrophe 1933–1945 (New York: Harper Collins, 1992); in the same vein, except for the contributions by D. Cesarani and S. Persson: Bystanders to the Holocaust: A Re-evaluation, edited by David Cesarani and Paul A. Levine (Journal of Holocaust Education, Vol 9, Nos 2–3, 2000). In the present essay the term applies strictly to individuals. Ervin Staub, "The psychology of bystanders, perpetrators, and heroic helpers," in: Leonard S. Newman and Ralph Erber (Eds.), Understanding Genocide: The Social Psychology of the Holocaust (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp 11–42, distinguishes between internal (in-group) and external (out-group) rescuers. Victoria Barnett, Bystanders. Conscience and Complicity During the Holocaust (Westport and London: Greenwood Press, 1999) does not contribute significantly to bystander analysis. Recently, there has been much discussion on the heuristic potential of applying neurobiological findings to the historical analysis of human behavior; for an overview and a critical assessment see the contributions in: Christian Geyer (Ed.), Hirnforschung und Willensfreiheit. Zur Deutung der neuesten Experimente (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 2004); see also the critical remarks by Alexander Kraus and Birte Kohtz, "Hirnwindungen—Quelle einer historiografischen Wende? Zur Relevanz neurowissenschaftlicher Erkenntnisse fu¨r die Geschichtswissenschaft," Zeitschrift fu¨r Geschichtswissenschaft (ZfG), Vol 55, No 10, 2007, pp 842–857. The following analysis cannot boast a similarly elaborate framework but may suggest one possible field of study where such concepts might prove useful. On the other hand, this essay points to the limits of the "cognitive turn" (be it psychological, neurological, or both) in regard to the availability as well as the meaningfulness of sources. Cf. Tony Kushner, "'Pissing in the wind?' The search for nuance in the study of Holocaust 'bystanders'," Journal of Holocaust Education, Vol 9, Nos 2–3, 2000, pp 57–76. One of the few exceptions was the Latvian city of Liepāja: Margers Vestermanis, "Ortskommandantur Libau. Zwei Monate deutscher Besatzung im Sommer 1941," in: Hannes Heer and Klaus Naumann (Eds.), Vernichtungskrieg. Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941–1944 (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 1995), pp 241–259. Born in 1889, Zehnpfenning had fought in World War I, subsequently joining the paramilitary Freikorps. After a failed commercial career Zehnpfenning re-entered the Reichswehr in 1934, eventually being promoted to the rank of colonel; Personal file Max Zehnpfenning, Bundesarchiv-Militärarchiv (BA-MA) Freiburg, Pers/6, No 9694. Bericht u¨ber die Tätigkeit des Divisionsstabs in Wilna, o.D. [1941], BA-MA, RH 26-403/4a, unfol.; Maßnahmen zur Sicherung und Befriedung des Gebietes Stadt und Land Wilna, 7.7.1841, BA-MA RH 24-403/4a, unfol.; Announcements, 7.7. and 8.7.1941, Lietuvos Centrinis Valstybės Archivas (LCVA) R 677-2-91, fol. 7/8; Correspondence FK 814, 10.7.1941, LCVA R 677-1-1, fol. 57; Bericht u¨ber Sonderaktion, 21.7.1941, LCVA R 677-2-92, fol. 11/12; for the role of the Wehrmacht in the early days of occupation in Lithuania, see also Kim C. Priemel, "Sommer 1941. Die Wehrmacht in Litauen," in: Vincas Bartusevičius, Joachim Tauber and Wolfram Wette (Eds.), Holocaust in Litauen. Krieg, Judenmorde und Kollaboration im Jahre 1941 (Köln: Böhlau, 2003), pp 26–39. For more details, see Kim C. Priemel, "Rettung durch Arbeit, Handlungsspielräume von Wehrmachtsangehörigen im Kontext des Holocausts in Vilnius, Litauen," unpublished MA thesis, University of Freiburg, 2002. Letter by Oskar Schönbrunner, December 7, 2001; Beförderungsverfu¨gung vom 30.4.1945, Bundesarchiv, Zentrale Nachweisstelle, card index; Kurzer Bericht und Schilderung persönlicher Erlebnisse u¨ber Rettung von Juden vor Erschießung oder Lagereinweisung, 9.8.1982, BA-MA MSg 2/2822, fol. 1. HHStA, Political CV, 30.7.1947, pp 1–4; see also Marianne Viefhaus, "Fu¨r eine Gemeinschaft der Einsamen unter ihren Völkern. Major Karl Plagge und der Heereskraftfahrpark 562 in Vilnius," in: Wolfram Wette (Ed.), Zivilcourage. Empörte, Retter und Helfer aus Wehrmacht, Polizei und SS (Frankfurt: Fischer, 2003), pp 97–113. For more biographical details on Schmid: Manfred Wieninger and Christiane M. Pabst, "Feldwebel Anton Schmid: Retter in Wilna," in: Wolfgang Benz and Mona Körte (Eds.), Solidarität und Hilfe Vol 4, Rettung im Holocaust. Bedingungen und Erfahrungen des u¨berlebens (Berlin: Metropol, 2001), pp 189–190. "Aktennotiz u¨ber eine Besprechung der Staatssekretäre vom 2. Mai 1941," Der Prozeß gegen die Hauptkriegsverbrecher vor dem Internationalen Militärgerichtshof (Nu¨rnberg 1947–49) [henceforth: IMT], Vol 31, p 84; cf. Alex J. Kay, "Germany's Staatssekretäre, mass starvation and the meeting of 2 May 1941," Journal of Contemporary History, Vol 41, No 4, 2006, pp 685–700. For critical remarks on Kay's sources see the somewhat biased response by Klaus Jochen Arnold and Gert C. Lu¨bbers, "The meeting of the Staatssekretäre on 2 May 1941 and the Wehrmacht: a document up for discussion," Journal of Contemporary History, Vol 42, No 4, 2007, pp 613–626. Aktennotiz, IMT, Vol 31, p 84. Priemel, Rettung durch Arbeit, pp 89, 94, 101. Richtlinien fu¨r den Einsatz der ju¨dischen Arbeitskräfte, 30.9.1941, LCVA R 626-1-4, fol. 11/12. Yithzak Arad, Ghetto in Flames. The Struggle and Destruction of the Jews of Vilna in the Holocaust (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 1980), pp 41–79; Christoph Dieckmann, "Der Krieg und die Ermordung der litauischen Juden," in: Ulrich Herbert (Ed.), Nationalsozialistische Vernichtungspolitik 1939–1945. Neue Forschungen und Kontroversen (Frankfurt: Fischer, 1998), pp 292–329; Priemel, Rettung durch Arbeit, pp 46–51. For a comparison see also the Riga case study: Andrej Angrick and Peter Klein, Die "Endlösung" in Riga. Ausbeutung und Vernichtung 1941–1944 (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2006). See Priemel, "Sommer 1941," pp 26–39, as well as the forthcoming publication of Christoph Dieckmann's PhD thesis on the Holocaust in Lithuania (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 2008) which will deal extensively with the interaction of the different German authorities. Jäger's second and best-known report: Gesamtaufstellung der im Bereich des EK. 3 bis zum 1. Dez. 1941 durchgefu¨hrten Exekutionen, 1.12.1941, Bundesarchiv Berlin (BAB) R 70 SU/15, fol. 81–89 (for a printed version see Bartusevičius et al., op cit, pp 303–311). For an analysis of the internal dynamics of the EK 3 which were crucial for scale, scope, and speed of the extermination process in Lithuania: Alexander Neumann, Petra Peckl and Kim C. Priemel, "Praxissemester Osteinsatz. Der Fu¨hrernachwuchs der Sipo und der Auftakt zur Vernichtung der litauischen Juden," Zeitschrift fu¨r Genozidforschung, Vol 7, 2006, pp 8–48. Verordnung Nr. 1, 2.8.1941, LCVA R 677-1-1, fol. 34; Verordnung Nr. 11 (Landrat Kreis Wilna), 21.8.1941, LCVA R 689-1-2, fol. 44; Anordnung u¨ber die Behandlung des ju¨dischen Vermögens im Reichskommissariat Ostland, 13.10.1941, LCVA R 614-1-3, fol. 73; Arad, op cit, pp 110/111. Gesamtaufstellung der im Bereich des EK. 3 bis zum 1. Dez. 1941 durchgefu¨hrten Exekutionen, 1.12.1941, BAB R 70 SU/15, fol. 81–89; letter by the head of police in Wilna, 9.9.1941, in: B. Baranauskas, K. Rukšenas and E. Rozauskas (Eds.), Documents accuse (Vilnius: Gintaras, 1970), pp 217–218; Arad, op cit, pp 108–117. On Paneriai see: Rachel Margolis and Jim G. Tobias (Eds.), Die geheimen Notizen des K. Sakowicz. Dokumente zur Judenvernichtung in Ponary (Nuremberg: Antogo, 2003). Instruktion, o.D., LCVA R 1421-1-2, fol. 2; Yitshkok Rudashevski, The Vilna Ghetto Diary (Tel Aviv: Ghetto Fighter's House, 1973), p 36; Marc Dvorjetski, La Victoire du Ghetto (Paris: France-Empire, 1962), pp 58–60; Grigorij Schur, Die Juden von Wilna. Die Aufzeichnungen des Grigorij Schur 1941–1944 (Munich: dtv, 1999), pp 64–65. Later, Schönbrunner reported that he had initially employed some 500 Jewish workers. However, these data are not corroborated by contemporary sources; Interrogation Oskar Schönbrunner, 21.11.1960, Bundesarchiv Ludwigsburg (BAL) B 162/2522, fol. 7241. Statistische Angaben u¨ber beschäftigte Inhaber der gelben und blauen Ausweise, 25.1.1942, LCVA R 626-1-209, fol. 100–102. Report by O. Schönbrunner, BA-MA MSg 2/2822, fol. 7/8, 10; Interrogation O. Schönbrunner, 12.4.1961, BAL B 162/2526, fol. 8037/8038. Report by O. Schönbrunner, BA-MA MSg 2/2822, fol. 5/6; Eidesstattliche Erklärung M. Schumelis and F. Komras [25.5.1947], Yad Vashem (YV), Department of the Righteous, M 31/1167, fol. 6; Testimony Shlomo Bernovsky, YV M 31/55, fol. 21/22. Rudashevski, Diary, September 13, 1941, pp 51, 165 (fn. 24). HHStA, Affidavit Plagge, July 30, 1947; HHStA, Affirmation Alfred Stumpff, p 2; BA-MA MSg 2/2882, fol. 6; interview with O. Schönbrunner, November 19, 2001. HHStA, Affidavit Georg Raab, 1; HHStA Affirmation Christian Bartholomae, p 1; HHStA, Affidavit Heinz Zeuner, 1; Affidavit Gita Kamenmann, 12.6.1972, BAL B 162/2576, fol. 1300; Affidavit Lidia Radokwszczyk, 3.6.1970, BAL B 162/2552, fol. illegible; Interrogation Albert Weller, 17.4.1961, BAL B 162/2626, fol. 7903; similar: Affidavit Elias Gurewicz, 15.6.1959, BAL B 162/2502, fol. 1489/1490. Affirmation, YV M 31/1167, fol. 6, 7, 58; Report by Oskar Schönbrunner, BA-MA MSg 2/2822, fol. 9/10; Interview Schönbrunner 24.11.2001. Similar efforts by Schmid to free imprisoned Jews have been reported; however, firm evidence of these actions is still lacking; see e.g. Erika Weinzierl, Zu wenig Gerechte. Österreicher und Judenverfolgung 1938–1945, 2nd ed. (Grazl: Styria, 1985), p 132. Report by Hermann Adler, YV M 31/55, fol. 70; Affidavit Bernowsky, YV M 31/55, fol. 22; Chaika Grossmann, The Underground Army. Fighters of the Bialystok Ghetto (New York: Holocaust Library, 1987), pp 34–37; Dvorjetski, Victoire, p 191. Verzeichnis der Arbeitsstellen und der dort beschäftigten ju¨dischen Arbeitern [sic] per 27. Februar 1942, 27.2.1942; LCVA R 626-1-209, fol. 106; Aufstellung der Arbeitsstellen und der dort eingesetzten ju¨dischen Arbeitskräfte zum 26. August 1942, 25.8.1942, LCVA R 626-1-209, fol. 43–46. Befehl des RFSS an den HSSPF Ostland und den Chef des WVHA, 21.6.1943, BAB NS 19/1740, fol. 20. In Vilnius proper, the first plans to restrict employment of Jewish labor to large work forces and limited fields of action had been contemplated as early as November 1942: KTB Wwi Kdo Kauen, 4.11.1942, BA-MA RW 30/19, fol. 14. Lagebericht 7/43 des KdS Litauen, 31.7.1943, BAB R 90/122, fol. 1484; Lagebericht 9/43 des KdS Litauen, undated, LCVA R 1399-1-62, fol. 60; Aktenvermerk u¨ber Besprechung beim Kommandeur der Sipo und des SD, Wilna, OStuF Neugebauer, 5.8.1943, BA-MA RW 30/85, fol. 32. Abschlußbericht der Kommission zur Nachpru¨fung des Einsatzes ziviler Arbeitskräfte bei den Wehrmachtsdienststellen in Wilna, 2.8.1943, BA-MA RW 30/85, fol. 21. Besprechung Hptm. Klipfel mit OStuF Neugebauer vom SD Wilna u¨ber Judeneinsatz bei Wehrmachtsfertigung im Ghetto, 4.8.1943, BA-MA RW 30/85, fol. 30; Aktennotiz u¨ber Besprechung beim Kommandeur des Wilnaer SD, OStuF Neugebauer, am 3.8.1941, BA-MA RW 30/85, fol. 31. For Neugebauer's career see his personal file in Bundesarchiv-Zwischenarchiv Dahlwitz-Hoppegarten, ZR 661A.06, fol. 47–56. Moshe Feigenberg, Wilne untern Nacy-Joch (Landsberg, 1946), pp 18, 20, 22. For the extermination process in Estonia see: Ruth-Bettina Birn, Die Sicherheitspolizei in Estland 1941–1944. Eine Studie zur Kollaboration im Osten (Paderborn: Schöningh, 2006). Schur, Juden von Wilna, 182; HHStA, Affirmation Friedrich Asmus, fol. 1; HHStA, Affidavit Georg Raab, 1; KTB Wwi Außenstelle Wilna, fol. 1, 6. and 7.9.1943, BA-MA RW 30/85, fol. 48, 49, 51. In the aftermath of the deportation, according to the affidavits of his subordinates, Plagge severely clashed with the local SD section; Plagge was "desperate and incredibly furious" (Raab). Sollstärken November 1943, LCVA R 1421-1-511, fol. 183; Feigenberg, op cit, S. 23; Samuel Esterowicz, "The memoirs of Samuel Esterowicz," ed. Pearl Good, quoted from: Priemel, Rettung durch Arbeit, Materialien, p 28 (the memoirs are available at http://www.hometown.aol.com/michaeldg/memoirssmesterowicz.doc); Arad, op cit, p 421; Leyzer Ran (Ed.), Jerusalem of Lithuania, Illustrated and Documented, Vol 1 (New York: Vilno Album Committtee, 1974), p 142; Irina Guzenberg, "The 1942 general population census in Lithuania: the labor camps of Vilnius Ghetto," in: Vilniaus Getas: Kalinų sarašai/Vilnius ghetto: List of prisoners, Vol 2 (Vilnius: Valstybinis Vilniaus Gaono Žydu Muziejus, 1998), p 49. Aufstellungen und Facharbeiterlisten, undated, LCVA R 1421-1-511, fol. 51, 51ap, 100ap; Aufstellung des medizinischen Personals im Arbeitslager K.P. Ost, Subotschstr., undated, LCVA R 1421-1-511, fol. 60; Affidavit Herbert Mu¨ller, 21.4.1961, BAL B 162/2526, fol. 7990. Letters from Plagge to Heeresunterkunftsverwaltung 190, February 14–17, 1944 (copies), published in: Good, op cit, pp 153–155. Schur, Juden von Wilna, pp 202/203, 207; Esterowicz, op cit, p 31; Sollstärken November 1943, LCVA R 1421-1-511, fol. 160–183; Arad, op cit, p 443. Sollstärken 25.3.1944 und 12.–14.4.1944, LCVA R 1421-1-511, fol. 48, 26–31; Affidavit Mosche Feigenberg, 17.1.1960, BAL B 162/2515, fol. 6512/6513; Schur, op cit, pp 202/203. Quoted from "Memoirs of Pearl Good," available at http://www.members.aol.com/michaeldg/MemoirsP.rtf; Interview Martin and Liza Taub; Interview Molly Kadan (both used by friendly permission of Michael D. Good); Affidavit Mosche Feigenberg, 17.1.1960, BAL B 162/2515, fol. 6515. For a comprehensive and well-argued account see Adam Tooze, The Wages of Destruction. The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy (London: Allen Lane, 2006). Vortrag des General Thomas vor Herren des Auswärtigen Amtes, May 24, 1939, in: IMT, Vol 36, pp 119, 127. See also: Georg Thomas, Geschichte der deutschen Wehr- und Ru¨stungswirtschaft (1918–1943/45), ed. Wolfgang Birkenfeld (Boppard: Boldt, 1966), pp 195–198. The literature on German labor market policy and the use of forced labor has grown substantially in the past decades; for the following consult: Edward L. Homze, Foreign Labor in Nazi Germany (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), pp 8–12, 232; Ulrich Herbert, Fremdarbeiter. Politik und Praxis des "Ausländer-Einsatzes" in der Kriegswirtschaft des Dritten Reiches, 2nd ed. (Bonn: Dietz, 1999), pp 51–53; Walter Naasner, Neue Machtzentren in der deutschen Kriegswirtschaft 1942–1945. Die Wirtschaftsorganisation der SS, das Amt des Generalbevollmächtigten fu¨r den Arbeitseinsatz und das Reichsministerium fu¨r Bewaffnung und Munition/Reichsministerium fu¨r Ru¨stung und Kriegsproduktion im nationalsozialistischen Herrschaftssystem (Boppard: Boldt, 1994), p 30; Mark Spoerer, Zwangsarbeiter unter dem Hakenkreuz. Ausländische Zivilarbeiter, Kriegsgefangene und Häftlinge im Deutschen Reich und im besetzten Europa 1939–1945 (Stuttgart: DVA, 2001). Bernhard R. Kroener, "Die personellen Ressourcen des Dritten Reiches im Spannungsfeld zwischen Wehrmacht, Bu¨rokratie und Kriegswirtschaft 1939–1942," in: Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt (MGFA) (Ed.), Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg, Vol 5/1. Kriegsverwaltung, Wirtschaft und personelle Ressourcen, 1939–1941 (Stuttgart: DVA, 1988), pp 746, 758, 877–885, 957–960; Ulrich Herbert, Geschichte der Ausländerpolitik in Deutschland. Saisonarbeiter, Zwangsarbeiter, Gastarbeiter, Flu¨chtlinge (Mu¨nchen: Beck, 2001), pp 130–136; Homze, op cit, pp 26–44, 232; [Franz] Halder, Kriegstagebuch (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1964), Vol 3, pp 47, 257, 409; Bernhard R. Kroener, "'Menschenbewirtschaftung', Bevölkerungsverteilung und personelle Ru¨stung in der Zweiten Kriegshälfte (1942–1944)," in: MGFA (Ed.), Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg, Vol 5/2. Kriegsverwaltung, Wirtschaft und personelle Ressourcen 1942–1944/45 (Stuttgart: DVA, 1999), pp 821, 948; Naasner, op cit, p 30. Christian Streit, Keine Kameraden. Die Wehrmacht und die sowjetischen Kriegsgefangenen 1941–1945, 2nd ed. (Bonn: Dietz, 1991), pp 193–200; Herbert, Fremdarbeiter, pp 156–161; Naasner, op cit, pp 54–62. For the German starvation policy see Dieckmann, op cit, pp 310–323; Kay, op cit; Christian Gerlach, Kalkulierte Morde. Die deutsche Wirtschafts- und Vernichtungspolitik in Weißrußland 1941 bis 1944 (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 1999); Christian Gerlach, Krieg, Ernährung, Völkermord. Forschungen zur deutschen Vernichtungspolitik im Zweiten Weltkrieg (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 1998); Rolf-Dieter Mu¨ller, "Die Konsequenzen der, Volksgemeinschaft." Ernährung, Ausbeutung und Vernichtung," in: Wolfgang Michalka (Ed.), Der Zweite Weltkrieg. Analysen, Grundzu¨ge, Forschungsbilanz (Mu¨nchen and Zu¨rich: Piper, 1989), pp 245–246. Bericht u¨ber Besichtigungsfahrt v. 26.–29.7.1941 durch Oberst Marschall, 29.7.1941, BA-MA RH 22/251, fol. 116; KTB Ru¨ Kdo Kauen, Bericht fu¨r Monat Oktober, BA-MA RW 30/16, fol. 20; KTB Ru¨ In Ostland, Bericht fu¨r Monat September, BA-MA RW 30/1, fol. 96; Entwurf v. 11.11.1941 zu Vermerk u¨ber Ausfu¨hrungen Görings v. 7.11.1941, IMT, Vol 27, p 67. Christoph Dieckmann has referred to these dynamics as "Opfertausch," i.e. the replacement of one group of racially defined victims by another; for a detailed discussion see the forthcoming publication of his PhD thesis. KTB Ru¨ In Ostland, Lagebericht fu¨r den Monat Januar 1942; BA-MA RW 30/2, fol. 43. Vortrag des KVR Dipl.-Ing. Weber, V.O. des Wi Kdo Kowno im Gebiet Wilna, Chefingenieur des Ru¨ Kdo Kauen, 17.11.1941, BA-MA RW 30/79. Ulrich Herbert, Arbeit, Volkstum, Weltanschauung. u¨ber Fremde und Deutsche im 20. Jahrhundert (Frankfurt: Fischer, 1995), p 121. The recruitment policy was usually implemented by force, often by means of sheer brutality; cf. Babette Quinkert, "Terror und Propaganda. Die, Ostarbeiteranwerbung' im Generalkommissariat Weißruthenien," ZfG, Vol 47, No 8, 1999, pp 700–721; Markus Eikel, "'Weil die Menschen fehlen': Die deutschen Zwangsarbeiterrekrutierungen und -deportationen in den besetzten Gebieten der Ukraine," ZfG, Vol 53, No 5, 2005, pp 405–433. KTB Ru¨ Kdo Kauen, 20.11.1941, BA-MA RW 30/16, fol. 33/34.; KTB Ru¨ Kdo Kauen, 8.10.1942, BA-MA RW 30/19; Bericht u¨ber das 1. Vierteljahr 1944, 4.5.1944, KTB Wwi Kdo Kauen, BA-MA RW 30/21, fol. 65; Statistik der Musterungsaktion bis zum 23.8.1943, LCVA R 1399-1-61, fol. 170/171; Lagebericht fu¨r die Zeit 1.–31.3.1943 d. KdS Litauen, LCVA R 1399-1-61, fol. 31; Bericht u¨ber das 1. Vierteljahr 1944, 4.5.1944, KTB Wwi Kdo Kauen, BA-MA RW 30/21, fol. 65; Priemel, Rettung durch Arbeit, pp 77–79. Aufstellung der Arbeitsstellen und der dort eingesetzten ju¨dischen Arbeitskräfte zum 25. November 1942, LCVA R 626-1-209, fol. 5–13; Passierscheine und Einsatz in J. 1942 u. 1943, LCVA R 626-1-214, fol. 1. KTB Wwi Außenstelle Wilna, 8.7., 9.7., 22.7., 25.–28.7., 17.12.1941, BA-MA RW 30/79, fol. 3–22,72; Halder, op cit, Vol 2, pp 403, 411/412; Adolf von Schell, "Grundlagen der Motorisierung und ihre Entwicklung im Zweiten Weltkrieg," Wehrwissenschaftliche Rundschau, Vol 13, No 3, 1963, pp 221–223. Halder, op cit, Vol 3, pp 294, 299; Schell, op cit, p 225; for the awareness of his strong position see the letter of Karl Plagge to Raphael Strauss, April 4, 1956, in: Good, op cit, p 225. Interview with O. Schönbrunner by the author, November 19, 2001. In two other cases information on presumed rescuers—one a German soldier, the other a Reichsbahn official—is too sketchy to allow for an evaluation of their respective deeds; letter by Wolfram F., January [19]67, BAL B 162/2574, fol. 684–688. More peculiar is the case of the captain in the medical corps of FK 814. According to Solon Beinfeld the physician issued skilled-worker certificates to the Jewish medical staff and displayed a benevolent interest in the ghetto hospital but firmly remained within the limits of his official scope of action; see Solon Beinfeld, "Health care in the Vilna ghetto," Holocaust and Genocide Studies (HGS), Vol 12, No 1, 1998, pp 67–68, 91–92 (fn. 4). For rescue efforts by Lithuanians see the dated synopsis by Sarah Neshamit, "Rescue in Lithuania during the Nazi Occupation," in: Rescue Attempts During the Holocaust. Proceedings of the Second Yad Vashem International Historical Conference (New York and Jerusalem: KTAV/Yad Vashem, 1974), pp 289–331, and Gilbert, op cit, pp 65–86. Pearl M. Oliner, Saving the Forsaken. Religious Culture and the Rescue of Jews in Nazi Europe (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2004), p 4, splits the latter category into two aspects, situational and external. Others draw a sharp line between sociological and psychological variables which are subsumed under the same denominator for our purposes. The pioneering study was Perry London, "The rescuers: motivational hypotheses about Christians who saved Jews from the Nazis," in: J. Macaulay and L. Berkowitz (Eds.), Altruism and Helping Behavior (New York: Academic Press, 1970), pp 241–250. Cf. Nechama Tec, When Light Pierced the Darkness. Christian Rescue of Jews in Nazi-Occupied Poland (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986); Samuel P. Oliner and Pearl M. Oliner, The Altruistic Personality. Rescuers of Jews during the Holocaust (New York and London: Free Press, 1988); Eva Fogelman, Conscience & Courage. Rescuers of Jews during the Holocaust (London: Cassell, 1995); Eva Fogelman, "The rescuer self," in: Michael Berenbaum and Abraham J. Peck (Eds.), The Holocaust and History: The Known, the Unknown, the Disputed and the Reexamined (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), pp 663–677; Kristen Renwick Monroe, The Hand of Compassion. Portraits of Moral Choice during the Holocaust (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004). More balanced is Mordecai Paldiel's account, The Path of the Righteous: Gentile Rescuers of the Jews During the Holocaust (Hoboken: KTAV, 1993). Cf. David Gushee, "Many paths to righteousness: an assessment of research on why righteous gentiles helped Jews," HGS, Vol 7, No 3, 1993, pp 372–401, who emphasizes that information on personality traits of rescuers represent for the most part "soft data," ibid, p 392. For a general discussion of the significance of religious creed: Oliner, Saving the Forsaken; skeptical conclusions are drawn by John M. Darley and Daniel C. Batson, "'From Jerusalem to Jericho': a study of situational and dispositional variables in helping behaviour," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 27, No 1, 1973, pp 100–108. For biographical details see: Priemel, Rettung durch Arbeit; Good, op cit. As a result of his Vilnius experience Plagge broke with his National Socialist creed; letter of Karl Plagge to Anke Plagge, June 21, 1944 (private copy). Bibb Latané and John M. Darley, The Unresponsive Bystander: Why Doesn't He Help? (New York: Meredith, 1970), pp 31–32. Methodological objections to the experimental designs of Latané and Darley have been put forward by Russel D. Clark and Larry E. Word, "Where is the apathetic bystander? Situational characteristics of the emergency," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 29, No 3, 1974, pp 279–287. More general criticism has recently been raised by Rachel Manning, Mark Levine and Alan Collins, "The Kitty Genovese murder and the social psychology of helping," American Psychologist, Vol 62, No 6, 2007, pp 555–562. The authors argue that the distorted representation of the Kitty Genovese case, which triggered bystander research, had a one-sided but lasting effect on how studies of helping behavior were conducted, and therefore limited their heuristic scope. Latané and Darley, op cit, pp 33–40. The presence of witnesses, however, has two sides to it. Psychological research suggests that, depending on the situational norms which define the status of the victim, actual help is only provided subject to "a cost–reward matrix," i.e. the social costs associated with helping need to be below those of non-helping or to be outweighed by social rewards; Irving M. Piliavin, Judith Rodin and Jane A. Piliavin, "Good Samaritanism: an underground phenomenon?," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 13, No 4, 1969, pp 289–299. Letter from Plagge to D. Greisdorf, February 20, 1948 (copy), published in: Good, op cit, pp 163–164. For the impact of visual cues see Piliavin/Rodin/Piliavin, "Good Samaritanism," pp 290, 298. Interrogation Albert Weller, 17.4.1961, BAL B 162/2526, fol. 7903; Affidavit Alfred Stumpff, 2.11.1961, BAL B 162/2509, fol. 4401; Interrogation O. Schönbrunner, 21.11.1960, BAL B 162/2522, fol. 7242. These features mirrored the standard proceedings by the infamous Rollkommando Hamann which was responsible for the murder of the Jewish rural population in Lithuania; Knut Stang, Kollaboration und Massenmord. Die litauische Hilfspolizei, das Rollkommando Hamann und die Ermordung der litauischen Juden (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1996), pp 257–268. Quoted from HHStA, Minutes, 9.2.1948, p 2; report by O. Schönbrunner, BA-MA MSg 2/2822, fol. 5, 7; Interrogation O. Schönbrunner, 12.4.1961, BAL B 162/2526, fol. 8037–8038; cf. Arno Lustiger, "Feldwebel Anton Schmid. Judenretter in Wi
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