Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

Temporary American citizens? British audiences, hollywood films and the threat of Americanization in the 1920s

2006; Routledge; Volume: 26; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/01439680600916736

1465-3451

Mark Glancy,

French Historical and Cultural Studies

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Acknowledgements This article was completed during a period of leave funded in part by a grant from the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC), whose support I gratefully acknowledge. I am also grateful to Sue Harper, Roger Law and Kirsten Sarna for their comments on earlier drafts of the article, and to the very helpful staff at the British Film Institute library for their assistance with my research. Notes 1. Daily Express, 18 March 1927, p. 6. 2. Variety, 1 July 1925, p. 1. 3. Times, 23 March 1927, p. 8. 4. Atkinson's phrase, 'temporary American citizens' lay dormant for several decades, but ever since it was quoted by Jeffrey Richards in his definitive study of British cinema in the 1930s, it has been reprised repeatedly. Jeffrey Richards, The Age of the Dream Palace: cinema and society in Britain, 1930–1939 (London, 1984), 63. Since then it has been quoted in the following: M. Dickinson and S. Street, Cinema and State: the film industry and the British government, 1927–84 (London, 1985), 30; Victoria de Grazia, Mass culture and sovereignty: the American challenge to European cinemas, 1920–1960, The Journal of Modern History, 61(1) (1989), 53; David Ellwood, Introduction: historical methods and approaches, in D. Ellwood and R. Kroes (eds) Hollywood in Europe: experiences of a cultural hegemony (Amsterdam, 1994), 3; Kerry Segrave, American Films Abroad: Hollywood's domination of the world's movie screens (North Carolina, 1997), 45; Ross McKibben, Classes and Cultures: England 1918–1951 (Oxford, 1998), 427; R. Maltby and R. Vasey, "Temporary American citizens": cultural anxieties and industrial strategies in the Americanisation of European cinema, in A. Higson and R. Maltby (eds) 'Film Europe' and 'Film America': cinema, commerce and cultural exchange, 1920–1939 (Exeter, 1999), 32–55; T. Miller and G. Yudice, Cultural Policy (London, 2002), 91; and Jim Leach, British Cinema (Cambridge, 2004), 125. 5. See, for example, Peter Stead, Hollywood's message for the world: the British response in the 1930s, The Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, 1(1) (1981), 18–32; Ian Jarvie, Hollywood's Overseas Campaign: the North Atlantic movie trade, 1920–1950 (Cambridge, 1992); and John Trumpbour, Selling Hollywood to the World: U.S. and European struggles for mastery of the global film industry, 1920–50 (Cambridge, 2002), 164. 6. Rachel Low, The History of the British Film, 1918–1929 (London, 1971), 47. 7. The results of the first three Bernstein Questionnaires (surveys conducted in 1927, 1928 and 1931) offer a rare glimpse at British audience preferences immediately before and after the institution of the 'quota' system. In the first two surveys, the comic actress Betty Balfour was the only British star to score strongly with patrons of Sidney Bernstein's Granada Cinema chain. Balfour fell off the list for 1931, and Bernstein observed that British films did not yet enjoy the same level of popularity as those made in Hollywood. See The Public Voice, Kinematograph Weekly, 14 April 1932, p. 33. 8. Jackie Stacey, Star Gazing: Hollywood cinema and female spectatorship (London, 1994), 55–56. While Stacey considers the 1940s and 1950s, another study of British audiences is centred on fan magazines in the 1930s; Annette Kuhn, Cinema culture and femininity in the 1930s, in C. Gledhill and G. Swanson (eds) Nationalising Femininity: culture, sexuality and British cinema in the Second World War (Manchester, 1996), 177–192. 9. James R. Barrett, Americanization from the bottom up: immigration and the re-making of the working class in the United States, 1880–1930, The Journal of American History, 79(3) (December 1992), 997. 10. Rob Kroes, Americanization: what are we talking about?, in R. Kroes, R. W. Rydell and D. F. J. Bosscher (eds) Cultural Transmissions and Receptions: American mass culture in Europe (Amsterdam, 1993), 303. 11. Times, 28 September 1849, p. 4. The Times always spelled Americanization with a 'z' rather than an 's', and I have adopted that spelling throughout this article. 12. Times, 7 September 1904, p. 6. 13. Times, 21 August 1868, p. 6. 14. The earliest anxiety registered regarding Australia was that, once the telegraph had reached California, American newspapers could reach Australia much more quickly via a Pacific Ocean crossing than British newspapers could be brought via the Indian Ocean (Times, 14 May 1862, p. 6). Concerns about Canada were registered as early as 1869 (Times, 22 March 1869, p. 8) and later included one of the first reports on Americanization through the cinema (Times, 30 October 1911, p. 6). 15. W. T. Stead, The Americanization of the World (London, 1902), 9. 16. Ibid., 7. 17. Ibid., 147. 18. F.A. McKenzie, The American Invaders (London, 1902), 1. 19. Stead, 138. 20. According to Thompson, American films were gaining in market share in Britain from 1909 onward, but in 1913 and 1914, before the war interrupted European film production, British audiences were still seeing a mix of American, Italian, French and British films. Kristin Thompson, Exporting Entertainment: America in the world film market, 1907–1934 (London, BFI, 1985), 30 and 35. 21. A. J. P. Taylor, English History, 1914–1945 (London, 1975 [1965]), 181. 22. John Stevenson, British Society, 1914–45 (London, 1984), 92–93. 23. Low, The History of the British Film, 48–50. 24. This ratio is derived from the figures in Thompson, Exporting Entertainment, 125. 25. Jarvie, Hollywood's Overseas Campaign, p. 108; and T. J. Hollins, The Conservative Party and film propaganda between the Wars, The English Historical Review, 96(379) (1981), 359. 26. Jarvie, 109. 27. Times, 22 March 1927, 15. 28. See the discussion in Nicholas Reeves, The Power of Film Propaganda: myth or reality? (London, 1999). 29. Ruth Vasey, The World According to Hollywood, 1918–1939 (Wisconsin, 1997), 42. 30. This equation was cited in the House of Commons by the Liberal MP Geoffrey Le Mander; Kinematograph Weekly, 24 July 1930, p. 29. 31. Griffith's comments were reprinted under the title Looking Forward to a World Americanized, in Kinematograph Weekly, 3 January 1924, p. 105. Hays' comments are reflected upon in E. J. MacDonald, Los Angelising Europe, Kinematograph Weekly, 4 September 1924, p. 49. They are also discussed in Richard Maltby, The Americanization of the World, in M. Stokes and R. Maltby (eds) Hollywood Abroad: audiences and cultural exchange (London, 2004), 1. 32. The Prince of Wales endorsed the notion that 'trade follows the film' when he gave his backing to the British National Film League at its inaugural event in November 1923; Times, 15 November 1923, 10. Grierson's comments were made in an editorial; John Grierson, One Foot of Film Equals One Dollar of Trade, Kinematograph Weekly, 8 January 1931, p. 87. 33. Low, The History of the British Film, 20. 34. William C. Lengel, Why Fight Over Hollywood?, The North American Review, May 1929, pp. 535–540. Lengel wrote this vituperative analysis of the coverage of the United States in the British press after living in London for several years. His article is discussed in David A. Richards, America Conquers Britain: Anglo-American conflict in the popular media during the 1920s, Journal of American Culture, 3(1) (1980), 95–103. 35. Lengel, Why Fight Over Hollywood?, p. 535. 36. London Research and Information Bureau, Press Circulations Analysed (London, 1928), 71–76. 37. McKibben, Classes and Cultures, 527. 38. D.L. LeMahieu, A Culture For Democracy: mass communication and the cultivated mind in Britain between the Wars (Oxford, 1988), 32–43. 39. Ibid., 8. 40. Variety noted that Atkinson's BBC radio talks were little different in tone or content from his press writings. It estimated that his weekly Friday evening broadcasts were heard by 7.5 million listeners. Variety, 1 July 1925, p. 1. 41. Sunday Express, 30 January 1921, p. 4. 42. See in particular Why the War Girls Left Home; Sunday Express, 11 July 1925, p. 4; and War Films Galore, Sunday Express, 25 July 1926, p. 4. 43. See, for example, the column, America Wants Our Past; Sunday Express, 12 December 1926, p. 4. 44. Atkinson thought that British film-makers should shun 'talkies' and continue to make silent films—that this was Britain's Chance to Lead [the] Film World; Sunday Express, 2 September 1928, p. 8. 45. Ibid. 46. Barry was not entirely consistent in this line of argument. Elsewhere in the book she endorsed the notion that 'trade follows the film'. Iris Barry, Let's Go to the Pictures (London, 1926), 18 and 219. 47. Haidee Wasson, Writing the cinema into daily life: Iris Barry and the emergence of film criticism in the 1920s, in A. Higson (ed.) Young and Innocent? The Cinema in Britain, 1896–1930 (Exeter, 2002), 330. 48. The Newest Art, Daily Mail, 15 April 1926, p. 8. 49. Leslie K. Hawkins, Iris Barry, writer and cineaste, forming film culture in London, 1921–24, Modernism/Modernity, 3(3) (2004), 499. 50. What the Public Wants, Daily Mail, 21 November 1925, p. 8. 51. In this respect, Barry was not far afield from either G. A. Atkinson or another prominent critic of the decade, Walter Mycroft, who wrote for London's Evening Standard. On Mycroft, see Vincent Porter, The construction of an anti-Hollywood film aesthetic: the film criticism of Walter Mycroft in the 1920s, in A. Burton and L. Porter (eds) Crossing the Pond: Anglo-American film relations before 1930 (Wiltshire, 2002), 72–80. 52. London Research and Information Bureau, Press Circulations Analysed, 71–76. 53. For example, one front-page headline story, Film Star Dead on Beach, referred to Hollywood as 'one of the most notorious places in the world'. News of the World, 21 January 1923, p. 1. 54. Times, 19 August 1921, p. 9. 55. Times, 12 February 1920, p. 18. 56. Times, 27 August 1925, p. 11. 57. This was a method borrowed from the women's magazines of this era. Cynthia L. White, Women's Magazines, 1693–1968 (London, 1970), 96–99. 58. Stay Where You Are, Picturegoer, April 1921, p. 7. 59. Without the Cane, Picturegoer, June 1921, p. 7. 60. Why I Go to the Pictures, Girls' Cinema, 29 December 1923, p. 10. 61. Our Prince Helps British Pictures, Picture Show, 17 November 1923, p. 1. 62. All the World's A Film, Picturegoer, May 1921, p. 7. 63. Valentino Triumphant, Pictures and Picturegoer, April 1925, p. 18. 64. Rachael Low, History of the British Film, 47–53. 65. Jeffrey Richards, The Age of the Dream Palace, 19. 66. The Glamour of the East, Picture Show, 21 July 1923, p. 1. 67. Antonia Lant, The curse of the Pharoah, or how cinema contracted Egyptomania, in M. Bernstein and G. Studlar (eds) Visions of the East: Orientalism in film (London, 1997), 74–75. 68. See, for example, the intense coverage in the Daily Express between 27 January 1923 and 19 February 1923. 69. Picturegoer, March 1921, p. 7. 70. There are no complete circulation figures available for any of the fan magazines in the 1920s. The first available figures are from a survey conducted in 1936, which claimed to cover 80% of the country. This indicated that Picturegoer sold 111,349 copies and Picture Show sold 60,318 copies in the areas surveyed. Readership figures would be higher, because a single copy was likely to be read by more than one person. Boys' Cinema was not included in the survey and Girls' Cinema by that time had ceased publication. W.N. Coglan, The Readership of Newspapers and Periodicals (London, 1936), 272–3. 71. Ibid. The 1936 survey found that only 9% of Picturegoer readers were in the survey's lowest income group (annual earnings of less than £125 per year), 62% had earnings in a range of £125 to £249, 24% had earnings between £250 and £499, 4% had earnings of £500 to £999, and 1% had earnings over £1000. This was at a time when, according to John Stevenson, average salaried earnings were approximately £200 per year, and 'the great majority of the population' earned less than £250. John Stevenson, British Society: 1914–45, 122. 72. The 'schoolboy shape' describes long dresses that have a low waistline, or none at all, and a cut that minimises curves. C. L. Mowat, Britain Between the Wars, 1918–1940, 212. 73. The training courses are for careers in 'commercial art' or 'fashion drawing'. Picturegoer, January 1921, p. 51; and Picturegoer, February 1921, p. 47. 74. Picturegoer, April 1923, p. 63. 75. J. B. Priestley, English Journey (London, 1997 [1934]), 325–326. 76. Christine Gledhill, Reframing British Cinema, 1918–28: between restraint and passion (London, 2003), 79. 77. Picturegoer, October 1921, p. 21. 78. Picturegoer, December 1921, pp. 8–9. 79. In a typical piece, Gloria Swanson's home is said to be 'as gorgeous as the star herself'. She is said to have designed the 'ornate' mantelpieces, to have dresses which match each room in the house, and to decorate the house with flowers from her own garden. Picturegoer, June 1923, pp. 36–37. 80. The most expensive clothes advertised in Picturegoer were usually those seen in advertisements for the department stores Debenham & Freebody and Harvey Nichols. Even in these, the emphasis was on the combination of high fashion and low prices. 81. Picturegoer, April 1921, p. 57. 82. Boys' Cinema, 24 January 1920, p. 6. 83. Boys' Cinema, 17 September 1921, p. 13. 84. White, Women's Magazines, p. 96. 85. Girls' Cinema, 28 July 1923, p. 14. 86. Girls' Cinema, 9 June 1923, p. 8. 87. Girls' Cinema, 16 June 1923, p. 8. 88. Girls' Cinema, 1 September 1923, p. 14. 89. Girls' Cinema, 13 October 1923, pp. 3–4. 90. The circulation data from 1936 indicates that Picture Show had fewer readers in the middle to upper income groups; 9% of its readers earned less than £125 per year, 74% earned between £125 and £249, 15% earned between £250 and £499, 2% earned between £500 and £999, and less than 1% earned over £1000. It also had a slightly stronger presence in Wales and the Southwest of England than Picturegoer. W. N. Coglan, The Readership of Newspapers, 272–273. 91. Picture Show, 23 September 1922, p. 9. 92. Jenny Hammerton indicates that the 'doubles' competition coincided with a talent-scouting contest in the Daily Sketch newspaper in 1922. It endured, however, far beyond that contest. Jenny Hammerton, Screen struck: the lure of Hollywood for British women in the 1920s, in Burton and Porter (eds) Crossing the Pond, 101.