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Regulation of the Salmonella typhimuriumFlavohemoglobin Gene

1998; Elsevier BV; Volume: 273; Issue: 51 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1074/jbc.273.51.34028

1083-351X

Michael J. Crawford, Daniel E. Goldberg,

Mitochondrial Function and Pathology

Flavohemoglobins, a family of two-domain proteins with homology to vertebrate hemoglobins, are found in a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms. Recent studies suggest a role for these proteins in nitrogen oxide metabolism. We now show that nitric oxide donors positively regulate a chromosomal flavohemoglobin (hmp)/lacZ operon fusion in Salmonella typhimurium. hmp gene expression in the presence of NO⋅ is independent of the SoxS, OxyR, and FNR transcription factors and instead relies on inactivation of the iron-dependent Fur repressor. Other Fur-repressed promoters in S. typhimuriumare also activated by an NO⋅ donor. In contrast to the wild-type strain, an hmp − mutant requires markedly lower concentrations of NO to induce the hmp/lacZ fusion, whereas its response to iron chelation is equivalent to wild type. These data unveil a new pathway for NO-dependent gene expression inS. typhimurium. Flavohemoglobins, a family of two-domain proteins with homology to vertebrate hemoglobins, are found in a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms. Recent studies suggest a role for these proteins in nitrogen oxide metabolism. We now show that nitric oxide donors positively regulate a chromosomal flavohemoglobin (hmp)/lacZ operon fusion in Salmonella typhimurium. hmp gene expression in the presence of NO⋅ is independent of the SoxS, OxyR, and FNR transcription factors and instead relies on inactivation of the iron-dependent Fur repressor. Other Fur-repressed promoters in S. typhimuriumare also activated by an NO⋅ donor. In contrast to the wild-type strain, an hmp − mutant requires markedly lower concentrations of NO to induce the hmp/lacZ fusion, whereas its response to iron chelation is equivalent to wild type. These data unveil a new pathway for NO-dependent gene expression inS. typhimurium. Regulation of the Salmonella typhimuriumflavohemoglobin gene. A new pathway for bacterial gene expression in response to nitric oxide.Journal of Biological ChemistryVol. 274Issue 6PreviewPage 34029, "Experimental Procedures": The greek symbols were not inserted so the E. coli strain listed as S17-1 1pir should be S17-1 λpir, and the concentrations of the antibiotics ampicillin, kanamycin, chloramphenicol, and tetracycline should read "μg/ml" rather than "mg/ml." Full-Text PDF Open Access nitric oxide S-nitrosoglutathione 2,2′-(hydroxynitrosohydrazono)bisethanamine fur titration assay. In addition to its function as a regulatory molecule in organisms ranging from humans to slime molds, nitric oxide possesses potent and broad spectrum antimicrobial activity (1Fang F.C. J. Clin. Invest. 1997; 99: 2818-2825Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). The cellular targets responsible for the cytocidal and/or cytostatic action of NO1 include lipids, thiols, DNA, and transition metals. A growing body of evidence indicates that bacteria are capable of inducing protective enzymes in the presence of NO and other reactive nitrogen intermediates, a process recently termed the nitrosative stress response (2Hausladen A. Privalle C.T. Keng T. DeAngelo J. Stamler J.S. Cell. 1996; 86: 719-729Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (312) Google Scholar). The SoxRS system, which is activated by superoxide generators, will stimulate antioxidant genes in reaction to NO⋅ and defend Escherichia coli from the NO-dependent bactericidal activity of macrophages (3Nunoshiba T. DeRojas-Walker T. Wishnok J.S. Tannenbaum S.R. Demple B. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1993; 90: 9993-9997Crossref PubMed Scopus (280) Google Scholar). OxyR, a transcription factor involved in stimulation of peroxide detoxification genes, is directly modified by NO viaS-nitrosylation and assists in protecting the bacterium from the NO donor S-nitrosocysteine (2Hausladen A. Privalle C.T. Keng T. DeAngelo J. Stamler J.S. Cell. 1996; 86: 719-729Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (312) Google Scholar). Alkyl hydroperoxide reductase subunit C, one of the enzymes influenced by OxyR, has been shown to protect Salmonella typhimurium from another NO donor, S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) (4Chen L. Xie Q.-W. Nathan C. Mol. Cell. 1998; 1: 795-805Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (171) Google Scholar). Deletion of flavohemoglobin, a two-domain protein with N-terminal homology to hemoglobins and C-terminal homology to oxidoreductases, also results in hypersensitivity of S. typhimurium to nitrosative stress (5Crawford M.J. Goldberg D.E. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 12543-12547Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (157) Google Scholar). The mutant strain is equivalent to wild-type in sensitivities to superoxide and hydrogen peroxide, suggesting the existence of a nitrosative stress response that is independent of the oxygen-related stress pathways. Flavohemoglobins have been isolated from phylogenetically distant organisms, including Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Bacillus subtilis, and E. coli (6Zhu H. Riggs A.F. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1992; 89: 5015-5019Crossref PubMed Scopus (137) Google Scholar, 7LaCelle M. Kumano M. Kurita K. Yamane K. Zuber P. Nakano M.M. J. Bacteriol. 1996; 178: 3803-3808Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 8Vasudevan S.G. Armarego W.L.F. Shaw D.C. Lilley P.E. Dixon N.E. Poole R.K. Mol. Gen. Genet. 1991; 226: 49-58Crossref PubMed Scopus (184) Google Scholar). Although the promoter activities of some flavohemoglobins are influenced by oxygen availability (7LaCelle M. Kumano M. Kurita K. Yamane K. Zuber P. Nakano M.M. J. Bacteriol. 1996; 178: 3803-3808Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 9Crawford M.J. Sherman D.R. Goldberg D.E. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270: 6991-6996Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (44) Google Scholar), nitrogen oxides are known to induce the transcription of these proteins in other organisms. Flavohemoglobin in the fungus Fusarium oxysporum is present only during denitrification, an anaerobic electron transport pathway that reduces nitrate to dinitrogen via nitrogen oxide intermediates (10Takaya N. Suzuki S. Matsuo M. Shoun H. FEBS Lett. 1997; 414: 545-548Crossref PubMed Scopus (22) Google Scholar). A flavohemoglobin mutant strain of the denitrifying bacteriumAlcaligenes eutrophus is deficient in the transient production of nitrous oxide (N2O), an intermediate that is immediately downstream of NO⋅ in the denitrification pathway (11Cramm R. Siddiqui R.A. Friedrich B. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 7349-7354Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Many other flavohemoglobin-containing organisms do not have the denitrifying capability of F. oxysporum or A. eutrophus. Some, such as E. coli and B. subtilis, will reduce nitrite to ammonia or ammonium rather than nitric oxide (12Cole J. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 1996; 136: 1-11Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 13Ogawa K. Akagawa E. Yamane K. Sun Z.W. LaCelle M. Zuper P. Nakano M. J. Bacteriol. 1995; 177: 1409-1413Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Nevertheless, purified NO⋅ was found to be a major inducer of flavohemoglobin (hmp) promoter activity in E. coli (14Poole R.K. Anjum M.F. Membrillo-Hernandez J. Kim S.O. Hughes M.N. Stewart V. J. Bacteriol. 1996; 178: 5487-5492Crossref PubMed Scopus (208) Google Scholar). An hmp/lacZ operon fusion was stimulated approximately 20-fold by 20 μmnitric oxide, while requiring 8 mm nitrite and 40 mm nitrate to give similar results. Unlike the nitrite and nitrate effects, which are escalated anaerobically, the NO⋅induction is largely independent of O2 concentration. TheB. subtilis hmp is also induced by comparable levels of nitrite, but the influence of nitric oxide was not reported (7LaCelle M. Kumano M. Kurita K. Yamane K. Zuber P. Nakano M.M. J. Bacteriol. 1996; 178: 3803-3808Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Recently, purified E. coli flavohemoglobin was demonstrated to oxidize NO⋅ to the less toxic nitrate (15Gardner P.R. Gardner A.M. Martin L.A. Salzman A.L. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1998; 95: 10378-10383Crossref PubMed Scopus (497) Google Scholar), thus assigning an enzymatic activity to the nitrosative stress protection shown by phenotypic analyses (5Crawford M.J. Goldberg D.E. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 12543-12547Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (157) Google Scholar). The elements responsible for the NO⋅-dependent expression of flavohemoglobins are not known. Although the ResDE two-component system accounts for some of the anaerobic expression ofhmp in B. subtilis, factors contributing to the nitrite induction were not elucidated (7LaCelle M. Kumano M. Kurita K. Yamane K. Zuber P. Nakano M.M. J. Bacteriol. 1996; 178: 3803-3808Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). E. coli strains harboring null alleles of narL and narP, which regulate nitrate and nitrite reductases, do not substantially alterhmp expression (14Poole R.K. Anjum M.F. Membrillo-Hernandez J. Kim S.O. Hughes M.N. Stewart V. J. Bacteriol. 1996; 178: 5487-5492Crossref PubMed Scopus (208) Google Scholar). FNR, a transcription factor known to positively regulate a flavohemoglobin homolog in the bacteriumVitreoscilla as well as many denitrification enzymes in other species, actually represses anaerobic expression of the E. coli hmp (14Poole R.K. Anjum M.F. Membrillo-Hernandez J. Kim S.O. Hughes M.N. Stewart V. J. Bacteriol. 1996; 178: 5487-5492Crossref PubMed Scopus (208) Google Scholar, 16Joshi M. Dikshit K.L. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1994; 202: 535-542Crossref PubMed Scopus (44) Google Scholar, 17Zumft W. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 1997; 61: 533-616Crossref PubMed Scopus (2897) Google Scholar). The NO⋅ expression is also largely independent of the SoxRS system in E. coli (14Poole R.K. Anjum M.F. Membrillo-Hernandez J. Kim S.O. Hughes M.N. Stewart V. J. Bacteriol. 1996; 178: 5487-5492Crossref PubMed Scopus (208) Google Scholar). In addition to nitrogen oxides, the iron chelator 2,2′-dipyridyl significantly enhances E. coli hmp expression. This induction was tentatively attributed to deactivation of FNR, which requires iron for function (14Poole R.K. Anjum M.F. Membrillo-Hernandez J. Kim S.O. Hughes M.N. Stewart V. J. Bacteriol. 1996; 178: 5487-5492Crossref PubMed Scopus (208) Google Scholar). In this study, we have found that the S. typhimurium hmpgene expression is induced by the NO donors and that the transcriptional repressor Fur is the primary factor responsible forhmp regulation. Nitric oxide causes a general derepression of other Fur-regulated genes, suggesting a new mechanism of NO action on bacterial gene expression. Spermine NONOate (2,2′-(hydroxynitrosohydrazono)bisethanamine) was obtained from Alexis Biochemicals (San Diego, CA). MacConkey agar and LB broth were acquired from Difco. Other chemicals were purchased from Sigma.S-Nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) was made as described previously (18Stamler J.S. Loscalzo J. Anal. Chem. 1992; 64: 779-785Crossref PubMed Scopus (143) Google Scholar). The strains in this study are listed in Table I. To obtain an integrated hmp/lacZ operon fusion, a 1-kilobase pairSalI/SmaI DNA fragment containing approximately 950 base pairs of hmp upstream sequence was isolated from pMC71 and ligated into the SmaI site of pFUSE, a suicide plasmid that harbors the promoterless lacZYA operon (19Baumler A. Tsolis R. van der Velden A. Stojiljkovic I. Anic S. Heffron F. Gene (Amst.). 1996; 183: 207-213Crossref PubMed Scopus (134) Google Scholar). The resultant plasmid was propagated in E. coli strain S17-1 lpir (20Miller V.L. Mekalanos J.J. J. Bacteriol. 1988; 170: 2575-2583Crossref PubMed Scopus (1711) Google Scholar) and transformed into S. typhimurium14028s, making MCS38. Integration at the hmp locus was confirmed by Southern blot (not shown). Transductions of various transcription factor null alleles into MCS38 were performed using bacteriophage P22 (21Sternberg N.L. Maurer R. Methods Enzymol. 1991; 204: 18-43Crossref PubMed Scopus (180) Google Scholar). Details on the construction of plasmids pSKO1/2 and pSKO3/4, used in the Fur titration assay, were described previously (5Crawford M.J. Goldberg D.E. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 12543-12547Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (157) Google Scholar). The fur mutants were confirmed by siderophore production on chrome azurol S plates (22Schwyn B. Neilands J. Anal. Biochem. 1987; 160: 47-56Crossref PubMed Scopus (4492) Google Scholar).Table IStrains and plasmids used in this studyPlasmid or strainRelevant characteristics or genotypeReference or SourcePlasmidspMC714.4-kilobase pairSalI genomic fragment containinghmp::Kan in pBSKII+5Crawford M.J. Goldberg D.E. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 12543-12547Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (157) Google Scholar (Stratagene, La Jolla, CA)pSKO1/2300 bpabp, base pair. of hmp promoter sequence in pBSKII+5Crawford M.J. Goldberg D.E. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 12543-12547Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (157) Google ScholarpSKO3/4350 bp of hmp ORFbORF, open reading frame. in pBSKII+5Crawford M.J. Goldberg D.E. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 12543-12547Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (157) Google ScholarS. typhimurium14028Wild-type strainATCC14028hmp − (MCS2A)14028 withhmp::Kan5Crawford M.J. Goldberg D.E. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 12543-12547Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (157) Google Scholar14028s-soxSsoxS::pBR1044Fang F. Vazquez-Torres A. Xu Y. Infect. Immun. 1997; 65: 5371-5375Crossref PubMed Google ScholarDJ1444oxyR::Tn1045Papp-Szabo E. Firtel M. Josephy P. Infect. Immun. 1994; 62: 2662-2668Crossref PubMed Google ScholarTn2336oxrA2 (fnr)::Tn1046Strauch K. Botti Lenk J. Gamble B. Miller C. J. Bacteriol. 1985; 161: 673-680Crossref PubMed Google ScholarJF2044iroA1::MudJ fur1 zbf5127::Tn10 (60% to fur-1)J. FosterAJB2714028 Nalr withiroC::lacZYA18Stamler J.S. Loscalzo J. Anal. Chem. 1992; 64: 779-785Crossref PubMed Scopus (143) Google ScholarMCS32AJB27 with pSKO1/2This studyMCS33AJB27 with pSKO3/4This studyMCS3414028 with pSKO1/2This studyMCS3814028 with hmp::lacZYAThis studyMCS39MCS38 with hmp::KanThis studyMCS40MCS38 with fur-1 zbf5127:Tn10This studyMCS41MCS38 with oxyR::Tn10This studyMCS43MCS38 with soxS::pBR10This studyMCS45MCS38 with fnr::Tn10This studyMCS5614028 withiroA1::MudJThis studyE. coliXL1-BluerecA1 endA1 gyrA96thi hsdR17 supE44 relA1 lac{F′ proAB lacIqZDM15, Tn10}Stratagene (La Jolla, CA)S17–1 lpirPrp thi recA hsdR; chromosomal RP4–2 (Tn1::ISR1 tet::Mu Km::Tn7); lpir19Baumler A. Tsolis R. van der Velden A. Stojiljkovic I. Anic S. Heffron F. Gene (Amst.). 1996; 183: 207-213Crossref PubMed Scopus (134) Google Scholara bp, base pair.b ORF, open reading frame. Open table in a new tab All liquid cultures were grown in LB broth. When necessary, antibiotics were added at the following concentrations: 100 mg/ml ampicillin, 50 mg/ml kanamycin, 25 mg/ml chloramphenicol, 15 mg/ml tetracycline. For SPER/NO growth curves, 250 ml of bacteria from an overnight culture was inoculated into a 125-ml culture flask containing 25 ml of medium. The bacteria were then allowed to grow at 37 °C for 1 h with 225 rpm shaking before the introduction of 1 mm SPER/NO. Turbidities were followed using a Klett colorimeter. For gene expression studies, overnight cultures were diluted 1/100 into test tubes containing 2 ml of medium and were shaken at 37 °C for 1.5 h. Unless otherwise indicated, 1 mm SPER/NO or 0.2 mm 2,2′-dipyridyl was introduced, and the cultures were allowed to incubate for another 2 h. To stop gene expression, 300 mg/ml spectinomycin was added 5 min before harvesting. Cells were pelleted, resuspended in Z buffer (23Miller J. Experiments in Molecular Genetics. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY1972: 352-355Google Scholar), and permeabilized with sodium dodecyl sulfate and chloroform. β-Galactosidase activities, which were assayed in triplicate, are expressed as Miller units (23Miller J. Experiments in Molecular Genetics. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY1972: 352-355Google Scholar). All experiments were performed at least three times with two independently isolated clones. For the Fur titration assay, bacteria from overnight cultures were streaked onto MacConkey agar with ampicillin and incubated overnight at 37 °C (24Stojiljkovic I. Baumler A. Hantke K. J. Mol. Biol. 1994; 236: 531-545Crossref PubMed Scopus (309) Google Scholar). To facilitate gene expression studies on hmp, we used an S. typhimurium strain harboring a single copy of an hmp/lacZ operon fusion. The expression construct contains 920 base pairs of hmp upstream sequence fused to the promoterless lacZYA operon in the suicide plasmid pFUSE (19Baumler A. Tsolis R. van der Velden A. Stojiljkovic I. Anic S. Heffron F. Gene (Amst.). 1996; 183: 207-213Crossref PubMed Scopus (134) Google Scholar). As confirmed by Southern as well as by phenotypic analyses using NO donors (not shown), the endogenous hmp gene was not affected by this integration event. Spermine NONOate (SPER/NO), a well characterized NO⋅ donor (25Hirasaki A. Jones K. Perkins W. Warner D. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1996; 278: 1269-1275PubMed Google Scholar, 26Maragos C. Wang J. Hrabie J. Oppenheim J. Keefer L. Cancer Res. 1993; 53: 564-568PubMed Google Scholar), was employed to determine sensitivities of wild-type and hmp − strains as well as hmp promoter activity in response to nitric oxide. Using 1 mm SPER/NO, a growth delay is observed for both strains but is much more pronounced in the hmp −mutant (Fig. 1). Addition of SPER/NO induces the hmp promoter approximately 20-fold (Fig.2). We examined the transcription factors known to respond to nitric oxide (SoxS and OxyR) or to influencehmp transcription in E. coli (Fnr) for their contribution to aerobic hmp expression in S. typhimurium (2Hausladen A. Privalle C.T. Keng T. DeAngelo J. Stamler J.S. Cell. 1996; 86: 719-729Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (312) Google Scholar, 15Gardner P.R. Gardner A.M. Martin L.A. Salzman A.L. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1998; 95: 10378-10383Crossref PubMed Scopus (497) Google Scholar, 27Nunoshiba T. DeRojas-Walker T. Tannenbaum S.R. Demple B. Infect. Immun. 1995; 63: 794-798Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Strains harboring null alleles ofsoxS, oxyR, and fnr are still able to respond to SPER/NO (Fig. 2), indicating that a previously uncharacterized pathway is responsible for the NO⋅-dependent expression of flavohemoglobin.Figure 2The hmp/lacZfusion is induced by SPER/NO independently of SoxS, OxyR, and FNR. Strains carrying an integrated hmp/lacZ operon fusion were assayed for reporter expression in exponentially growing cultures with or without 1 mm SPER/NO. Shown are β-galactosidase-specific activities of strains MCS38 (WT), MCS41 (soxS), MCS43 (oxyR), MCS45 (fnr). Results are means ± S.E. for three experiments, all done in triplicate.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload (PPT) Low iron conditions increase expression of E. coli hmp (14Poole R.K. Anjum M.F. Membrillo-Hernandez J. Kim S.O. Hughes M.N. Stewart V. J. Bacteriol. 1996; 178: 5487-5492Crossref PubMed Scopus (208) Google Scholar). Nitric oxide is known to react with transition metals and may therefore perturb cellular iron levels (28Stamler J.S. Singel D.J. Loscalzo J. Science. 1992; 258: 1898-1902Crossref PubMed Scopus (2455) Google Scholar). To determine whether the SPER/NO effect on the hmp promoter is specific or due to a more general phenomenon of iron metabolism, we also tested iroAand iroC reporter fusions, which were originally isolated because of their induction under low-iron conditions (19Baumler A. Tsolis R. van der Velden A. Stojiljkovic I. Anic S. Heffron F. Gene (Amst.). 1996; 183: 207-213Crossref PubMed Scopus (134) Google Scholar, 29Foster J.W. Hall H.K. J. Bacteriol. 1992; 174: 4317-4323Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). In addition to induction by the iron chelator 2,2′-dipyridyl, the β-galactosidase activity driven by these promoters is also stimulated by 1 mm SPER/NO (Fig. 3). Therefore, NO appears to cause widespread alteration of iron-regulated gene expression in S. typhimurium. The iroA andiroC promoters are repressed by the Fur protein, a global transcriptional regulator that is active when bound to ferrous iron (19Baumler A. Tsolis R. van der Velden A. Stojiljkovic I. Anic S. Heffron F. Gene (Amst.). 1996; 183: 207-213Crossref PubMed Scopus (134) Google Scholar, 29Foster J.W. Hall H.K. J. Bacteriol. 1992; 174: 4317-4323Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). We tested whether a fur null allele could influence the hmp/lacZ fusion. Complete derepression occurs in the fur background, which cannot be augmented with the addition of 2,2′-dipyridyl and/or SPER/NO (Fig.4). To determine if the hmppromoter is capable of binding Fur, a fur titration assay (FURTA) was performed (24Stojiljkovic I. Baumler A. Hantke K. J. Mol. Biol. 1994; 236: 531-545Crossref PubMed Scopus (309) Google Scholar). In this assay, a high copy number plasmid carrying a putative Fur-binding element is introduced into a strain that carries a Fur-repressed lacZ fusion. If the plasmid is capable of binding Fur, a titration of this repressor will occur, leading to expression of the lacZ reporter. A plasmid containing 213 base pairs upstream of the hmp start codon is able to derepress the iroC/lacZ fusion (Fig.5) on MacConkey plates, whereas a plasmid with an insert containing a portion of the hmp open reading frame is not positive by FURTA. There is a sequence (5′-TCTAATGATGTATATCAAA-3′) found over the transcription start site in the hmp promoter that can be aligned to the consensus "Fur box" (5′-GATAATGATAATCATTATC-3′) (24Stojiljkovic I. Baumler A. Hantke K. J. Mol. Biol. 1994; 236: 531-545Crossref PubMed Scopus (309) Google Scholar). This level of identity to the consensus (10/19 matches) is equivalent to that of another FURTA-positive clone (pFTE-1) found during a general screen for Fur-regulated genes in S. typhimurium (30Tsolis R. Baumler A. Stojiljkovic I. Heffron F. J. Bacteriol. 1995; 177: 4628-4637Crossref PubMed Google Scholar).Figure 5Fur is capable of binding the hmppromoter in vivo. A Fur titration assay (24Stojiljkovic I. Baumler A. Hantke K. J. Mol. Biol. 1994; 236: 531-545Crossref PubMed Scopus (309) Google Scholar) was performed using high copy number plasmids harboring thehmp promoter region (pSKO1) (a) or a portion of the hmp open reading frame transformed into AJB27 (b), which harbors the Fur-repressed iroC/lacZfusion. The resultant strains (MCS32 and MCS33) are plated on MacConkey agar with ampicillin, which will turn red (dark) upon the expression of β-galactosidase. c, to confirm that the color observed is dependent on the integrated reporter and not on the plasmid, pSKO1 was also transformed into wild-type S. typhimurium 14028 (MCS34).View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload (PPT) The finding that Fur, well characterized for its regulation of iron scavenging (31Bagg A. Neilands J. Microbiol. Rev. 1987; 51: 509-518Crossref PubMed Google Scholar), also influences the expression ofhmp raises the possibility that flavohemoglobin may function in the processing of intracellular iron. Consequentially, we tested the effects of 2,2′-dipyridyl on growth and hmp/lacZ activity in the hmp − strain. No differences in growth rates between wild-type and hmp − strains could be demonstrated for any concentration of the iron chelator (not shown). Also, the expression of the hmp/lacZ fusions as a function of 2,2′-dipyridyl concentration is equivalent in both wild-type andhmp − strains (Fig.6 a). In contrast, induction of the hmp/lacZ reporter in the hmp −strain is more sensitive to SPER/NO than wild type (Fig.6 b). S-Nitrosoglutathione (GSNO), another nitric oxide donor that causes an accentuated growth deficiency in thehmp − strain (5Crawford M.J. Goldberg D.E. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 12543-12547Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (157) Google Scholar), is able to induce thehmp/lacZ fusion and provides a more dramatic (approximately 10-fold) decrease in the quantity needed for hmp gene induction in the hmp mutant background when compared with wild type (Fig. 6 c). GSNO also causes a greater relative growth impairment in the hmp − strain than SPER/NO (not shown). With increasing concentrations of NO donors, expression begins to decline after maximal gene induction (Fig. 6). This phenomenon is likely the result of toxicity to the strains, since cell growth diminishes at these concentrations. It is interesting to note that GSNO does not achieve the induction levels seen with SPER/NO. This may be due to the more complex chemistry of the nitric oxide species coming from GSNO. Unlike SPER/NO, which should provide a relatively pure source of the NO⋅ radical (32Ramamurthi A. Lewis R. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 1997; 10: 408-413Crossref PubMed Scopus (73) Google Scholar), GSNO will donate both NO⋅as well as the nitrisonium ion (NO+) (33Arnelle D.R. Stamler J.S. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1995; 318: 279-285Crossref PubMed Scopus (541) Google Scholar). Therefore, NO⋅ may be the major form of nitric oxide regulatinghmp gene expression. In addition to its role in iron acquisition, Fur is postulated to regulate general metabolic processes as well as adaptation to acid stress (24Stojiljkovic I. Baumler A. Hantke K. J. Mol. Biol. 1994; 236: 531-545Crossref PubMed Scopus (309) Google Scholar, 29Foster J.W. Hall H.K. J. Bacteriol. 1992; 174: 4317-4323Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). The results presented here on the regulation ofS. typhimurium flavohemoglobin demonstrate that the influence of Fur extends to the nitrosative stress response. We show that nitric oxide will derepress other iron-regulated promoters. The role of NO in control of iron metabolism has precedent in mammalian systems, although at a different level of regulation (34Drapier J. Hirling H. Weitzerbin J. Kaldy P. Kuhn L. EMBO J. 1993; 12: 3643-3649Crossref PubMed Scopus (346) Google Scholar, 35Weiss G. Goossen W. Doppler D. Fuchs K. Pantopolous G. Werner-Felmayer H. Wachter H. Hentze M. EMBO J. 1993; 12: 3651-3657Crossref PubMed Scopus (341) Google Scholar). The translation factors IRP-1 and IRP-2, which are thought to sense iron levels through the gain or loss of Fe-S clusters, control protein expression from several mRNAs involved in the uptake of iron. Nitric oxide is thought to mimic or cause iron deficiency by destruction of these clusters or by complexing with free iron, leading to depletion of the cellular iron pool (36Pantopolous K. Weiss G. Hentze M. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1996; 16: 3781-3788Crossref PubMed Scopus (178) Google Scholar). A similar situation may occur in a bacterial cell under nitrosative stress. NO could induce the conversion of Fe-Fur to an inactive Fur by modification of the iron or protein moiety. Alternatively, iron can react with nitric oxide to form dinitrosyl iron complexes, which may effectively sequester cellular iron in an unusable form. The formation of these complexes occurs in macrophages upon induction of nitric oxide synthase (37Pellat C. Henry Y. Drapier C. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1990; 166: 119-125Crossref PubMed Scopus (161) Google Scholar, 38Lancaster J. Hibbs J. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1990; 87: 1223-1227Crossref PubMed Scopus (491) Google Scholar) and is thought to assist in creating the low iron environment found in these cells (39Vanin A. Mordvintcev P. Hauschildt S. Mulsch A. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1993; 1177: 37-42Crossref PubMed Scopus (78) Google Scholar). We have shown that the hmp promoter is capable of binding Fur in vivo, and a putative Fur box is found over the start site of hmp transcription. We were, however, unable to find anything resembling a Fur box in either the E. coli or B. subtilis hmp promoters. Therefore, if Fur is influencing hmp expression in these organisms, it might be through a novel binding site or by indirect means. Sensitivity to nitric oxide (or NO donors) is the only known growth or gene expression difference between wild-type andhmp − strains (5Crawford M.J. Goldberg D.E. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 12543-12547Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (157) Google Scholar, 15Gardner P.R. Gardner A.M. Martin L.A. Salzman A.L. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1998; 95: 10378-10383Crossref PubMed Scopus (497) Google Scholar). Thehmp − strain is no more sensitive than wild type to iron chelation, bolstering the hypothesis that Hmp is involved with nitrosative stress protection rather than with general iron maintenance. Control of iron uptake, however, is an elaborate and complex process (40Crosa J. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. 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Although these stresses share many common targets within the cell (2Hausladen A. Privalle C.T. Keng T. DeAngelo J. Stamler J.S. Cell. 1996; 86: 719-729Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (312) Google Scholar), an intriguing disparity exists in their interaction with iron. Whereas reactive oxygen intermediates will undergo Fenton chemistry with iron to create highly toxic metabolites (42Halliwell B. Gutterridge J. Biochem. J. 1984; 219: 1-14Crossref PubMed Scopus (4556) Google Scholar), nitric oxide will simply bind iron, with the resultant complex creating unknown consequences for the cell (28Stamler J.S. Singel D.J. Loscalzo J. Science. 1992; 258: 1898-1902Crossref PubMed Scopus (2455) Google Scholar). Despite the induction of superoxide dismutase, the E. coli fur mutant is hypersusceptible to oxygen metabolites and cannot grow aerobically without an efficient DNA repair mechanism (43Touati D. Jacques M. Tardat B. Bouchard L. Despied S. J. Bacteriol. 1995; 177: 2305-2314Crossref PubMed Scopus (378) Google Scholar). It will prove interesting to assess the contribution of intracellular iron levels to nitrosative stress and the role that Fur and Hmp play in this process. We thank Andreas Baumler, Ferric Fang, Eduardo Groisman, David Josephy, Virginia Miller, Charles Miller, and John Foster for the provision of strains and for helpful suggestions.