Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

TURKMENISTAN: CHANGE IS COMING?

2010; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 16; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/19934271003595087

2151-7495

Yury Fedorov,

Metallurgy and Cultural Artifacts

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1. According to the findings of the audit, the lower estimate of gas reserves in the South Yolotan-Osman field is 4 trillion cubic meters, the optimal figure is 6 trillion, and the higher estimate is 14 trillion. See: Vladimir Solovyev, “Peremennik Rodiny,” Kommersant, October 23, 2008. 2. BP Statistical Review of World Energy (June 2009), p. 22. 3. “Repression and regression in Turkmenistan: a new international strategy,” International Crisis Group. Asia Report, no. 85 (November 4, 2004), p. 21. 4. Tynan Deirdre, “Turkmenistan: Ashgabat Hosts U.S. Military Refuelling, Resupply Operations,” Eurasia Insight, August 7, 2009, http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insightb/articles/eav070809_pr.shtml, last accessed September 14, 2009). 5. Turkmenistan–China gas pipeline talks held in Ashgabat. March 9, 2009, , last accessed September 15, 2009). 6. Rewriting Future: China–Turkmenistan Relations Fly High. NCA Report and commentary. September 1, 2008, , last accessed September 15, 2009). 7. Amangeldy Nurmuradov. Tukrmenistan to use Chinese loan to fund gas field development. RIA Novosti, June 29, 2009, , last accessed September 14, 2009. 8. Russian–Turkmen cooperation agreements signed in Ashgabat, August 30, 2008, , last accessed September 14, 2009. 9. The index of political stability is a percentile rank of the country in the world, as rated by a panel of experts. See: World Bank, The Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI) project, , last accessed September 14, 2009. 10. Shokhrat Kadyrov, “Turkmenistan: institute of presidency in a post-colonial clan society,” Eurasia, , last accessed September 14, 2009. 11. Shokhrat Kadyrov, “Ethnic basis of governance in Central Asia: yesterday, today, tomorrow” (special report for the Conference “The Turkmenistan: not an Orange revolution but Regional?”), Oslo, June 6, 2005, , last accessed September 14, 2009. 12. Avdy Kuliev, “Turkmen elite—an insider's view,” Eurasia Internet. , last accessed September 14, 2009. 13. “Tribal allegiances cannot divide us,” Erkin Turkmenistan, , last accessed September 15, 2009. 14. Akmurad Rejepov—born 1952 (approximately) in Chardzhou province (now Lebap province). Tribe: Ersari. Studied at the Higher School of the KGB in Moscow in 1974–1979. Served with the KGB department in Chardzhou province in 1979–1980. Worked in the security service of first secretary of the Turkmen Communist Party (who also hailed from Chardzhou province), Muhammednazar Gapurov in 1980–1985, until Gapurov's dismissal in 1985. After the appointment of Niyazov as head of the Communist Party in Turkmenistan, Rejepov became head of Niyazov's security. The core of the service was made up of Slavic KGB officers. In 1991, Rejepov became head of the presidential security service, which was granted special status and given the right to conduct its own investigations. The service became the country's most influential security agency, higher even that the Ministry of National Security and other law-enforcement agencies. Various estimates put the number of its staff at up to 2,000–3,000 people. Until the death of Niyazov, Rejepov's son Nurmurad served as deputy ambassador to the United Arab Emirates. It was said that he was in charge of Niyazov's financial transactions via the United Aran Emirates. Most Turkmen observers believe Rejepov was in charge of the group that took power after Niyazov's death. For a time he was seen as the leading political figure in the country. On May 15, 2007, the new president, Berdymuhammedov, signed a decree relieving Rejepov of his duties “in connection with his transfer to another post.” Several days later Rejepov was taken under arrest and then sentenced to a long prison term. See: Personae. Centre Asia, , last accessed September 17, 2009. 15. Valeriy Georgievich Otchertsov—born 1945 in Irkutsk region (in Russia). Graduated from Izhevsk Institute of Mechanics. Served in the Komsomol (youth wing of the Communist Party) in 1969–1978, including the post of second secretary of the Turkmen Komsomol branch. Served as the deputy head of science department of the Communist Party in Turkmenistan in 1978–1979. Second secretary of the Ashgabat city branch of the Communist Party in Turkmenistan in 1979–1986. Head of organizational and personnel department of the Communist Party in Turkmenistan in 1986–1990. Deputy chairman of the Turkmenistan parliament in 1990–1991. Deputy prime minister of Turkmenistan in 1991–1996. Some reports say he also held the post of economics and finance minister during that period. Relieved of his duties “in connection with departure from Turkmenistan, in accordance with his own request and due to family circumstances.” Appointed as special advisor and envoy on economic issues at the Turkmen embassy in Russia on August 23, 1996. Appointed first vice-president of the ITERA group in 1997. President of ITERA holding since 1999. The following quote is attributed to Otchertsov: “The Turkmens do not understand what the word ‘state’ means, they take it for a collective farm. All they need is as much power as possible, an opportunity to boast and to steal, and they are happy, they don't need anything else…” See: Centre Asia, , last accessed September 17, 2009. 16. Nazar Soyunov (Suyunov)—born in 1936 in the town of Nebit-Dag, Krasnovodsk region (now Balkan province). Tribe: Yomud. Graduated from the Azerbaijan Institute of Oil and Chemistry (1959), Moscow Institute of Economic Management under the U.S.S.R. State Committee for Science and Technology (1974), Academy of Social Sciences under the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the U.S.S.R (1982). Holds a PhD in Economics. Served as chief engineer and first deputy head of the State Committee for Geology of the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic (T.S.S.R). Head of department for geology under the Council of Ministers of T.S.S.R, chairman of the State Committee for Geology of T.S.S.R in 1967–1978. Deputy chairman of the Council of Ministers, Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1978–1985. Head of the Geology Directorate of T.S.S.R in 1985–1987. Director-general of Turkmengeologiya concern in 1987–1990. Member of the Presidential Council, chairman of the Committee for Fuel, Energy and Industry under the Presidential Council in 1990–1994. Appointed deputy prime minister and oil and gas minister in 1990. Resigned in 1994 “in connection with transfer to another job”. Left the country in 1995. See: Centre Asia, , last accessed September 17, 2009. 17. Boris Shikhmuradov—born in Ashgabat in 1949 to a family of a senior Soviet Ministry of State Security official. Graduated from the Journalism faculty of the Moscow State University and the Diplomatic Academy under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Served at the APN (official Soviet news agency) and the Foreign Ministry, Soviet embassies in Pakistan and India in 1971–1992. Appointed first deputy foreign minister of Turkmenistan in 1992. Appointed deputy chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers of Turkmenistan the same year. Foreign Minister of Turkmenistan in 1995–1999 (he also held the deputy prime minister's job during that period). Special envoy on the status of the Caspian Sea and Afghan settlement, rector of the Turkmen National Institute of Sports an Tourism, president of the National Olympic Committee in July 2000–March 2001. Ambassador to China in March–November 2001. In October 2001, while in Moscow, made the decision not to return to Turkmenistan. On November 1, 2001 announced his decision to join the democratic opposition to Niyazov and the creation of the People's Democratic Movement of Turkmenistan (NDDT). Put on the wanted list by the prosecutor-general's office in Turkmenistan on charges of illegal sale of five Su-17 combat aircraft, 9,000 Kalashnikov assault rifles and 1.5 million rounds of ammunition. Arrested in Ashgabat on December 25, 2002. Sentenced on December 28, 2002 to 25 years in prison for attempted coup and an assassination attempt on Niyazov. On December 30, 2002 the People's Assembly increased his sentence to life imprisonment. Boris Shikhmuradov's brother Konstantin, born 1951, was arrested in early December 2002. Konstantin's son Murad, born 1981, was arrested in Ashgabat on March 21, 2001, four days after Boris Shikhmuradov left for Beijing; he was sentenced to 25 years in prison for premeditated murder. See: Centre Asia, , last accessed September 17, 2009. 18. Rustem Safronov, “Night of the Big Mouths,” Novaya Gazeta, May 30, 2002. 19. Rustem Safronov, “Night of the Big Mouths,” Novaya Gazeta, May 30, 2002. 20. Viktoriya Panfilova, “The Khan can pardon, the Khan can kill,” Nezavisimaya gazeta—Dipkuryer, June 21, 2004. 21. Turkmen secret services. Agentura.ru, , last accessed September 15, 2009. 22. Viktoriya Panfilova, Shokhrat Kadyrov, “Turkmenbashi fearing military coup,” Nezavisimaya gazeta, May 28, 2003. 23. Turkmen secret services. Agentura.ru, , last accessed September 15, 2009. 24. Panfilova, Kadyrov, “Turkmenbashi fearing military coup…” 25. Former deputy Central Bank chairman Annadurdy Khadzhayev said large quantities of drugs were stored in the Central Bank's vaults and then shipped abroad via the VIP lounge of Ashgabat airport. He said this drug-trafficking channel was controlled by the former head of the presidential security service, Akmurad Rejepov, and the deputy head of the presidential administration, Zhadan. Panfilova, “The Khan can pardon, the Khan can kill.” 26. Orkhan Jemal, “Who fired at Turkmenbashi?” Novaya gazeta, January 20, 2003. 27. Orkhan Jemal, “Jail terms handed down by the dozen in Ashgabat,” Novaya gazeta, January 23, 2003. 28. Batyr Mukhamedov, “President's wrath,” Novaya gazeta, January 9, 2003. 29. Constitution of Turkmenistan (of August 15, 2003), , last accessed September 14, 2009. 30. M. Khemrayev, “Turkmenistan. How the West took the death of the leader (correspondent reports),” February 7, 2007, , last accessed September 14, 2009. 31. Gurbanguly Berdymuhammedov—born 1957 in Akhal province. Held minor positions until 1995. Appointed head of the main dental clinic under the Turkmen Ministry of Healthcare and Medical Industry in 1995. Appointed minister of healthcare and medical industry of Turkmenistan on May 28, 1997. Oversaw some extremely controversial decisions, including the closure of provincial clinics and hospitals. Appointed deputy prime minister for healthcare, education and science on April 3, 2001. Culture and the mass media were included in his remit starting from August 2004. See: Centre Asia, , last accessed September 17, 2009. 32. “Berdymuhammedov pardons participants of attack on Turkmenbashi,” Novaya gazeta, August 10, 2007. 33. Georgiy Sitnyanskiy, “Turkmenistan spring, Berdymuhammedov-style,” Analitica.org, January 22, 2008, , last accessed September 15, 2009. 34. “TIPC: Censorship of letters. Why should Turkmenistan hide the obvious?” July 21, 2008, , last accessed September 15, 2009. 35. Highlights on health in Turkmenistan, 2005. World Health Organization (2006), p. 4. 36. The interesting term “institutionless” was aptly used by Russian researcher A. Kazantsev. He proposed a theory that a more oligarchic system of government would emerge under Berdymuhammedov. All the important decisions would be a product of difficult compromise within the collective leadership rather than being made by one man. That would lead to those decisions actually being carried out, rather than being changed all the time. “The institutionless personalized authoritarianism will start to evolve into a more institutionalized oligarchic authoritarianism”. However, developments in 2007–2008 have put paid to that theory. A. Kazantsev, “Prospects for evolution of the political regime in Turkmenistan after the death of Turkmenbashi,” Analitica.org, February 12, 2007, , last accessed September 15, 2009. 37. Orazgeldy Amanmyradov—born 1970 in Akhal province. Graduated from the History faculty of the Turkmen National University in 1992. Received an appointment in the Ministry of National Security in 1995. Studied at the FSB Academy in Russia in 1997–1998. Appointed rector of the Great Saparmurat Turkmenbashi Military Academy in 2007. Appointed Minister of Internal Affairs on October 8, 2007. See: Centre Asia, , last accessed September 17, 2009. 38. The only information available on Ingender Mulikov is that he served as deputy interior minister in February 2009. In February–May 2009 he was chief of police at Dashoguz province. See: Centre Asia, , last accessed September 17, 2009. 39. Geldymuhammet Ashirmuhammedov—born 1957 in Balkan province. Graduated from the Physics faculty of Turkmen National University. Served with the KGB of the T.S.S.R, then the KNB of Turkmenistan. Took KGB courses for senior officers in Minsk in 1983 and in Kiev in 1985. Served in the presidential security service in 1992–1997. Commander of the Army in 1997–2002. Graduated from the Chinese Academy of General Staff in 2001. Appointed deputy chief of the KNB in 2002. Appointed first deputy interior minister the same year. Appointed interior minister in August 2004. Minister of National Security since December 2004. See: Centre Asia, , last accessed September 17, 2009. 40. Charymyrat Amanov—born 1966 in Geoktep district of Akhal province. Graduated from the Mathematics faculty of Turkmen National University in 1990. Studied at the Higher School of the KGB in 1991–1992. Served with the KNB since 1992. Appointed deputy chairman of the State Agency for Registration of Foreign Nationals in February 2007. Appointed head of the presidential security service in May 2007. Appointed minister of national security on October 8, 2007. See: Centre Asia, , last accessed September 17, 2009. 41. Chary Khodzhamyradov—born 1962 in the village of Bakharly, Akhal province. Graduated from the Law faculty of the Turkmen National University in 1984. Held minor posts until 1992. Served as a judge of the Supreme Court of Turkmenistan in 1992–1998. Served as deputy chairman and then chairman of the city court of Ashgabat in 1998–2002. Chairman of Dashoguz provincial court in 2002–2006. Chairman of the city court of Ashgabat in 2006-2007. Appointed Chief Justice of Turkmenistan in 2007. See: Centre Asia, , last accessed September 17, 2009. 42. Yaranmyrat Yazmyradov—born 1971 in Akhal province. Graduated from the distance learning department of the Law faculty of the Turkmen National University. Served in the Supreme Court in 1992–1996. Served as a military tribunal judge of Ashgabat garrison in 1996–1997. Served in Ashgabat city court and municipal agencies in 1997–2007. Served as a judge of the city court of Ashgabat in 2007–2008, chairman of Akhal provincial court since 2008. See Centre Asia, , last accessed September 17, 2009. 43. Agageldy Mametgeldyev—born 1946 in Akhal province. Graduated from the wartime Medicine faculty of Saratov Medical University (in Russia) with a degree in “Treatment and Prevention of Diseases”. Worked as a doctor, head of a first-aid unit with a separate motorized battalion in the Turkestan military district. Head of a regimental medical unit with the Soviet troops in Germany, head of the medical service of an air-defense brigade in 1974–1979. Head of a military sanatorium in 1979–1983. Resident physician, senior resident physician at the Turkmen military district army hospital in 1983–1988. Lecturer at the military department of the Turkmen State Medical Institute in 1988–1992. Head of a military sanatorium in 1992–1994. Appointed deputy defense minister for administration in 1994. Head of the Border Guards service, commander of Turkmen border troops in March 2002–September 2003. Defense minister, secretary of the National Security Council in September 2003–January 2009. Army general since October 2004. See: Centre Asia, , last accessed September 17, 2009. 44. Bayram Alovov, born 1969 in Ashgabat. Graduated from the Moscow Institute of Culture in 1994. Served with the KNB in 1994–1995, then with the presidential security service until 1999. Appointed deputy chief of the Border Guards service in May 1999. Appointed acting chief of the Border Guards service and commander of the border troops on November 2, 2006. Appointed chairman of the Border Guards service and commander of the border troops on February 27, 2007. Promoted to Major General in November 2004. Dismissed in January 2009. See: Centre Asia, , last accessed September 17, 2009. 45. “Chief of Turkmen border guards sacked,” Turkmenistan.ru, January 21, 2009, <http://www.turkmenistan.ru/?page_id=3&lang_id=ru&elem_id=14322&type=event&sort=date _desc; “New defense minister appointed,” Turkmenistan.RU, January 21, 2009, , last accessed September 15, 2009. 46. There is no information on Myrat Yslamov's date and place of birth. His first appearance in the political arena dates back to November 2002, when he became a Majlis member and head of a Majlis committee. Appointed chairman of the State Agency for Registration of Foreign Nationals and head of the department for military and law-enforcement agencies at the presidential administration in March 2003. In December 2006, shortly before Niyazov's death, Yslamov left Ashgabat to serve as first deputy governor of Mary province—an obvious demotion. Appointed head of the national anti-drugs service in January 2008. See: Centre Asia, , last accessed September 17, 2009. 47. Yaylym Berdiyev—born 1972 in Bekharly district of Akhal province. Graduated from the Turkmen University of Agriculture in 1994. Served with the KNB in 1995–2003. Served in the foreign nationals registration service in 2003–2006, reaching the rank of deputy chairman. Head of the foreign nationals registration service and head of the department of analysis of law-enforcement and military agencies' activity at the presidential administration in 2006–2007. Head of foreign nationals registration service in 2007–2008. Head of the State Migration Service in May–June 2008. Chairman of the Customs Service from June 19, 2008 until January 21, 2009. See: Centre Asia, , last accessed September 17, 2009. 48. These three are: deputy prime minister and foreign minister Rashyd Meredov; agriculture minister Esenmyrat Orazgeldyev; and environment minister Makhtumkuli Akmyradov. 49. E. Aman, “Who rules Turkmenistan. Who is who,” April 3, 2008, , last accessed September 15, 2009. 50. Rashyd Meredov—born 1960 in Ashgabat. Graduated from the Law faculty of the Moscow Lomonosov State University. Holds a PhD in Law. Elected chairman of the Majlis in 2001. Appointed foreign minister in July 2001. Deputy prime minister in 2003–2005, and then again since February 18, 2007. See: , last accessed September 15, 2009. 51. Khydyr Saparlyev—born 1958 in the town of Mary. Graduated from the Turkmen Polytechnics in 1982. Holds a PhD in Technology. Worked as researcher and educator until 1998. Berdymuhammedov's aide in 1998–1999. Later appointed as head of the science and education department under the Cabinet of Ministers. Appointed rector of the Turkmen Polytechnics in 2001. Education minister in 2004–2005. Appointed ambassador to Armenia in October 2005. Appointed minister of education on February 16, 2007, then deputy prime minister for education, science, culture, sports, the media and NGOs in March 2007. See: , last accessed September 15, 2009. 52. Viktor Mikhaylovich Khramov—born 1952 in Chardzhou (formerly the capital of Chardzhou province, now renamed Turkmenabad, capital of Lebap province). Graduated from the Tashkent Polytechnics (in Uzbekistan). In 1985, appointed as an aide to Niyazov, shortly after the latter's appointment as head of the Communist Party in Turkmenistan (other reports suggest he had been appointed to this position by Niyazov's predecessor Gapurov). As an aide of Niyazov, Khramov was responsible for maintaining his schedule of meetings, prepared press reviews, and was also responsible for censorship in the media. It is speculated that Kharmov's role had grown substantially after the departure of Valeriy Otchertsov to Moscow. There have been reports that he had worked with Otchertsov (who was already in Moscow at the time) and presidential security service chief Rejepov on a plot to assassinate Shikhmuradov in the late 1990s. Together with Rejepov, Khramov initiated the arrests of Kurbanmuradov, Saparov and Charyev. Led Berdymuhammedov's election campaign in 2007. It has been speculated that he was behind the downfall of Rejepov in 2007. He is thought to be the Number 2 man in Turkmenistan, in charge of domestic policies and propaganda—although this information is hard to verify. He is also a proponent of the hard line in dealing with the opposition. See: , last accessed September 15, 2009. 53. Iklymberdy Paromov—born 1965 in Mary province. Graduated from the Turkmen National University in 1990 as a teacher of history and social sciences. Taught social sciences at the Mary medical school of nurses and physician assistants in 1990–1995. Served with the KNB in 1995–1996. Deputy head of the military agencies department under the Cabinet of Ministers in 1996–1998. Spent the subsequent seven years working in the special department of the presidential administration and in the presidential security service. First deputy foreign minister in 2005–2006. Served as chief administrator at the presidential administration from January 25 until May 16, 2006. Minister of the textile industry from May 16 until July 14, 2007. Appointed chief administrator at the presidential administration and the cabinet of ministers on July 14, 2007. See: , last accessed September 15, 2009. 54. “Gurbanguly Berdymuhammedov proposes reform of the People's Assembly,” May 23, 2008, , last accessed September 15, 2009. 55. “President appoints new spokesman and culture minister,” January 12, 2008, , last accessed September 15, 2009. 56. “Universal prosperity through peace, progress and advances of the civilization,” Turkmenistan: the Golden Age, January 21, 2008, , last accessed September 15, 2009. 57. “Universal prosperity through peace, progress and advances of the civilization,” Turkmenistan: the Golden Age, January 21, 2008, , last accessed September 15, 2009. 58. The factual side of the events of September 12–13, 2008 is recounted using information from , which provides the most detailed description of what happened. 59. (1) People's Democratic Movement of Turkmenistan (NDDT), founded in 2001 by Boris Shikhmuradov. No information about its activity following Shikhmuradov's arrest. (2) The Vatan movement—date of creation unknown, led by former Turkmen deputy prime minister Khudayberdy Orazov, who lives in Sweden. (3) United Democratic Opposition of Turkmenistan, founded in 1998, led by Avdy Kuliev. Not active after Kuliev's death in April 2007. (4) Renaissance Party, led by Nazar Suyunov, former deputy prime minister. No further information available. (5) Republican Party of Turkmenistan, no information on date of creation or founders. Chaired by Nurmuhammed Khanamov, who was the head of the state department of procurement in Turkmenistan in 1990—August 1994, and the Turkmen ambassador to Turkey until February 2002. The party's website was last updated in early 2007. (6) The Russian Community of Turkmenistan, founded in 1991. Chaired by Anatoliy Petrovich Fomin, who lives and works in Moscow. Its main activity is providing assistance in obtaining Russian citizenship. See: , last accessed September 17, 2009.