Bourdieusian Reflections on Language: Unavoidable Conditions of the Real Speech Situation
2013; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 27; Issue: 3-4 Linguagem: Francês
10.1080/02691728.2013.818733
ISSN1464-5297
Autores Tópico(s)Social and Cultural Dynamics
ResumoAbstractThe main purpose of this paper is to shed light on Pierre Bourdieu's conception of language. Although he has dedicated a significant part of his work to the study of language and even though his analysis of language has been extensively discussed in the literature, almost no attention has been paid to the fact that Bourdieu's account of language is based on a number of ontological presuppositions, that is, on a set of universal assumptions about the very nature of language. This article aims to fill this gap in the literature by offering a detailed overview of 10 key features which, from a Bourdieusian point of view, can be regarded as inherent in language. On the basis of this enquiry, the study seeks to demonstrate that—contrary to common belief—there is not only a Bourdieusian sociology of language but also a Bourdieusian philosophy of language, which provides a useful theoretical framework for examining the unavoidable conditions of the real speech situation. The paper draws to a close by reflecting on the flaws and limitations of Bourdieu's approach to language.Keywords: BourdieuCommunicationHabermasLanguageLegitimacyRationalitySpeechSymbolic PowerValidity Notes[1] See, for example: Bourdieu (Citation1977); Bourdieu ([Citation1977] 1992); Bourdieu (Citation1982c); Bourdieu (Citation1982d); Bourdieu (Citation1982e); Bourdieu (Citation1982f); Bourdieu (Citation1982g); Bourdieu (Citation1982h); Bourdieu ([Citation1984]-e 1993); Bourdieu and Boltanski (Citation1975); Bourdieu and Delsaut (Citation1975, 23); and Bourdieu and Wacquant (Citation1992c).[2] See, for example: Boschetti (Citation2004); Calvet (Citation2002); Collins (Citation1998); Encrevé (Citation2004); Gebauer (Citation2005); Grenfell (Citation2010); Grenfell and James (Citation1998); Grenfell and Kelly (Citation1999); Hanks (Citation1993); Jenkins (Citation1994); Kögler (Citation2011); Ledeneva (Citation1994); Loos (Citation2000); Myles (2010); Olivesi (2005); Snook (1990); Searle (2004); Susen (2011a); Susen (2011d, 397–400); Susen and Turner (2011a, esp. 34, 37, 55, 108, 200, 219 and 298); Susen and Turner (2011b, xix–xxvii); and Thompson (1992).[3] See, for example, Bourdieu (Citation1982f, 72). See also Bourdieu and Wacquant (Citation1992c, 141).[4] See, for example, Bourdieu (2004, esp. 11–4, 15–35 and 53-75). See also Hacking (2004, 147).[5] On Bourdieu's analysis of the "linguistic field", see, for example, Bourdieu (1982a, esp. 11–21, 47–51 and 53–7). See also Ledeneva (Citation1994, esp. 13–6).[6] My translation; original text in French: "ambition du savoir absolu".[7] My translation; original text in French: "l'illusion de «l'intelligentsia sans attaches ni racines»".[8] See, for example, Bourdieu (Citation1982f, 67): "une compétence linguistique".[9] See, for example, Bourdieu (Citation1982d, 20): "une compétence sociale".[10] See, for example, Bourdieu (Citation1982f, 68): "les facteurs sociaux de la compétence linguistique".[11] See, for example, Bourdieu (Citation1982e, 46): "la valeur sociale de la compétence linguistique".[12] Bourdieu emphasizes the community-based nature of language on various occasions. See, for example, Bourdieu (Citation1982d, 18): "les membres de la même «communauté linguistique»". See also Bourdieu (Citation1982e, 26): "la «communauté linguistique» […] comme un «groupe de gens qui utilisent le même système de signes linguistiques»". In addition, see Bourdieu and Boltanski (Citation1975, 2–3): "«communauté linguistique» : un group de gens qui utilisent le même système de signes linguistiques"; Bourdieu and Boltanski (Citation1975, 6–7): "«communauté de conscience» : à travers le langage"; Bourdieu and Boltanski (Citation1975, 10–11): "les membres d'une «communauté linguistique»"; and Bourdieu and Boltanski (Citation1975, 28): "La langue existe dans la conscience de tous les membres de la communauté linguistique en cause."[13] On the Saussurian distinction between langue and parole, see, for example: Bourdieu ([Citation1977] 1992, 166); Bourdieu (1980a, 51–8); Bourdieu (Citation1982e, 24–5); Bourdieu and Wacquant (Citation1992c, 141–2 and 146). See also, for example: Baert (1998, 17–9); Habermas ([1976] 1984, 6–7 and 26–7); Habermas ([1984]-b 2001, 68); Kögler (Citation2011, 273–9); Krämer (2002, 98–104); Krämer and König (2002); Susen (2007, 74–5); Susen (2011d, 398); Thompson (1992, 4–5 and 7–8).[14] My translation; original text in French: "Le paradoxe de la communication est qu'elle suppose un médium commun mais qui ne réussit—on le voit bien dans le cas limite où il s'agit de transmettre, comme souvent la poésie, des émotions—qu'en suscitant et en ressuscitant des expériences singulières, c'est- à-dire socialement marquées."[15] On Bourdieu's—hermeneutically inspired—account of the nature of meaning, see, for example: Bourdieu ([1972] Citation1977, 171–2 and 177–97); Bourdieu (1980a, 53–5, 62–6, 103, 113, 135, 161, 178–9, 186–8, 191–207, 211–9, 226–7 and 244); Bourdieu (1982b, 10 and 34); Bourdieu (Citation1982c, 8–9); Bourdieu (Citation1982d, 15); Bourdieu (Citation1982f, 79n.17); Bourdieu (Citation1982h, 171–86); Bourdieu (1984, 6); Bourdieu (1994, 190); Bourdieu (1997b, 21–6, 44–5, 64, 67, 118, 120–3, 181, 184 and 206); Bourdieu (1999, 334); Bourdieu, Chamboredon and Passeron (1968, 30, 38, 56, 70 and 100–5); Bourdieu and Wacquant (1992d, 143–4).[16] My translation; original text in French: "des schèmes de perception et d'appréciation".[17] My translation; original text in French: "des agents dotés des schèmes de perception et d'appréciation".[18] On Bourdieu's conception of doxa, see, for example: Bourdieu ([1972] Citation1977, 3, 159, 163–71 and 222 n. 27); Bourdieu (1980a, 17, 26, 28, 30, 37, 43–5, 52, 90, 97, 111–5, 126, 153, 183 and 193); Bourdieu ([1984]-a 1993, 51); Bourdieu (1995a, 3–4); Bourdieu (1997b, 118, 120, 123, 163, 168, 171, 206–14, 220, 224 and 273–5); Bourdieu (1998a, 7–9); Bourdieu and Eagleton (1992, 111–21); Bourdieu and Wacquant (1992a, 73-4); Bourdieu and Wacquant (1992b, 98); Bourdieu and Wacquant (Citation1992c, 120–1 and 128); Bourdieu and Wacquant (1992d, 169). See also, for example: Acciaioli ([1981] 2000, 94 and 101); Bohman (1999, 141); Bonnewitz (1998, 81); Calhoun (1995, 151); Chauviré and Fontaine (2003, 35–6 and 40); Cicourel (1993, 90–1 and 105); Cronin (1997, 209 and 212); de Fornel (2003, 223); Engler and Zimmermann (2002, 51); Holton (2000, 87–93); Jenkins (1992, 70–1); Lau (2004, 376); Mesny (1998, 149–50, 154, 166 and 169); Mounier (2001, 179); Myles (2004, 91–107); Papilloud (2003, 110); Smith (2001, 155–71); Susen (2007, 138–41, 224–6 and 251–2); Wacquant (1999, 275); Wacquant ([1993] 2002, 34); Wacquant (2004, 97–101); Wagner (2003, 217–8).[19] My translation; original text in French: "consensus pré-réflexif, immédiat sur le sens du monde".[20] My translation; original text in French: "la transformation de l'histoire en nature, de l'arbitraire culturel en nature".[21] On Bourdieu's analysis of "the socialization of the natural" and "the naturalization of the social", see, for example: Bourdieu (1980a, 236 and 243); Bourdieu (1980b, 66); Bourdieu (Citation1982c, 8); Bourdieu (1997b, 87 and 113); Bourdieu, Chamboredon, and Passeron (1968, 34–5); Bourdieu and Eagleton (1992, 113). See also, for example: Accardo (1997, 12–9, 33–7, 121–2, 156 and 192); Andréani (1996, 61); Bonnewitz (1998, 39); Butler (1999, 114 and 120); Camic ([1986] 2000, 329 and 341); Caro (1980, 1188); Chauviré and Fontaine (2003, 35–6 and 40); Holton (2000, 91); Hong (1999, 245); Kögler ([1992] 1996, 237); Robbins (2000, 138); Smith (2001, 156 and 160); Susen (2007, 182).[22] On the Bourdieusian distinction between ordinary discourses and scientific discourses, see, for example: Bourdieu (1980a, 24, 43–5, 48–50 and 61); Bourdieu (1982b, 10, 15 and 32); Bourdieu (Citation1982d, 18–9); Bourdieu (1995a, esp. 3–5 and 10); Bourdieu (1997b, 119, 163, 217–8 and 225–6); Bourdieu (1999, 334–5); Bourdieu (2001b, 15); Bourdieu, Chamboredon, and Passeron (1968, 27–49 and 100–2); Bourdieu and Eagleton (1992, esp. 117); Bourdieu and Wacquant (Citation1992c, 150); Bourdieu and Wacquant (1992f, 213). For critical commentaries on the Bourdieusian distinction between ordinary discourses and scientific discourses, see, for example: Acciaioli ([1981] 2000, 94–5); Bohman (1997, 177); Bohman (1999, 135); Boltanski (1990a, 37–40); Boltanski (1990b); Boltanski (1998, 248–51); Boltanski (1999–2000, esp. 303–6); Boltanski (2009, 19–22, 39–41, 100–1 and 215); Bonnewitz (1998, 27–8 and 34–9); Brubaker (1985, 754); Brubaker (1993, 216–7); Caro (1980, 1177); Cicourel (1993, 90 and 93); Corcuff (2002a, 147 and 153–4); Corcuff (2002b, esp. 66, 68 and 70); Cronin (1997, esp. 206–7); Crowley (2002, 155–8); de Fornel (2003, 222–4); Dodier (2003, esp. 8–11); Eickelpasch (2002, esp. 50, 54–6 and 59); Engler and Zimmermann (2002, esp. 36–40 and 44); Grenfell and James (Citation1998, 124); Griller ([1996] 2000, 196); Hamel ([1997] 2000, esp. 150); Heilbron (1999, esp. 301); Héran ([1987] 2000, 4–5 and 7); Herz (1996, 236–7); Hoarau (1996, esp. 107 and 110); Holton (2000); Jenkins (1992, 68–73, 156 and 177); Karakayali (2004, 351–4); Karsenti (1995, 664); Kauppi ([1996] 2000, 230 and 234); Kögler ([1992] 1996, 220–7 and 229–33); König (2003, 86); Mesny (1998, 143–90); Mesny (2002, esp. 60–1 and 63–5); Monod (1995, 160–2); Mounier (2001, 211); Pinto (1995, 619); Susen (2007, 204–6); Susen (2011b, 447–63); Susen (2012); Swartz (1997, 56–60 and 274); Vandenberghe (1999, 40–3); Wagner (2003, 217–8); Webb, Schirato and Danaher (2002, 45, 52–4, 65–7 and 77–84).[23] My translation; original text in French: "vigilance épistémologique".[24] My translation; original text in French: "la séparation entre l'opinion commune et le discours scientifique".[25] My translation; original text in French: "[…] s'impose particulièrement dans le cas des sciences de l'homme […]".[26] My translation; original text in French: "préconstructions inhérentes à la routine du discours quotidien".[27] My translation; original text in French: "présupposés inscrits dans le langage".[28] My translation; original text in French: "la contextualité du discours".[29] My translation; original text in French: "[…] l'illusion de la transcendance d'une raison transhistorique et transpersonnelle […]."—In the published English translation the word "et", between the words "transhistorique" and "transpersonnelle", was replaced by a comma. See Bourdieu ([1997] 2000, 120).[30] On "the autonomy of the field", see: Bourdieu ([1972] Citation1977, 184); Bourdieu (1980a, 93, 97, 112–3 and 226–7); Bourdieu (1982b, 39); Bourdieu (1984, 9); Bourdieu ([1984]-c 1993, 51); Bourdieu (1988, 9–10); Bourdieu (1994, 171 and 233–4); Bourdieu (1997b, 23, 27, 29–32, 116–7, 119, 121, 123, 134, 140 and 150); Bourdieu (1997a, 14–6); Bourdieu (1998a, 111); Bourdieu (2001b, 48); Bourdieu (2001a, 67, 74, 95–6 and 100); Bourdieu and Wacquant (1992b, 97 and 103–4); Bourdieu and Wacquant (1992e, 189).[31] My translation; original text in French: "les lois immanentes du discours légitime".[32] My translation; original text in French: "représentation légitime du monde social".[33] My translation; original text in French: "l'ubiquité sociale de la langue légitime".[34] My translation; original text in French: "l'acquisition de la compétence légitime".[35] My translation; original text in French: "imposition de la langue légitime".[36] My translation; original text in French: "définition du légitime et de l'illégitime".[37] My translation; original text in French: "l'imposition de la reconnaissance de la langue légitime".[38] My translation; original text in French: "la dévaluation des dialectes et l'instauration de la nouvelle hiérarchie des usages linguistiques".[39] My translation; original text in French: "légitime".[40] My translation; original text in French: "épurée et purifiée".[41] See, for example, Bourdieu (Citation1982e, 54, 55 and 85): "les stratégies linguistiques de la petite-bourgeoisie et en particulier sa tendance à l'hypercorrection"; "l'hypercorrection contrôlée"; "les «incorrections» par hypercorrection".[42] See, for example: Bourdieu (Citation1982e, 25, 43, 44, 46 and 53); Bourdieu (Citation1982f, 64, 67, 68, 74 and 85); Bourdieu and Wacquant (1992d, 147). See also, for example: Bohman (1999, 132); Bronckart and Schurmans (1999, 164); Grenfell and James (Citation1998, 73); Jenkins (Citation1994, 96–7); Thompson (1992, 6); Wagner (2003, 216).[43] See, for example: Bourdieu (Citation1982e, 43, 46 and 53); Bourdieu and Boltanski (Citation1975, 12); Bourdieu and Eagleton (1992, 111). See also, for example: Boschetti (Citation2004, esp. 172–8); Herz (1996, esp. 230–3); König (2003, 76–81); Ledeneva (Citation1994, 12–3); Thompson (1992, 18); Wacquant ([1997] 2004, esp. 212–4).[44] See, for example: Bourdieu (Citation1982d, 14); Bourdieu (Citation1982e, 29 and 36); Bourdieu (Citation1982f, 66, 67, 75, 79, 82–3 and 85); Bourdieu and Wacquant (1992d, 145). See also, for example: Accardo (1997, 165); Butler (1999, 120); Cicourel (2004, esp. 164–70 and 181–5); Gebauer (2005, esp. 145–8); Grenfell and James (Citation1998, 74); Jenkins (Citation1994, 96); Ledeneva (Citation1994, 3 and 13); Thompson (1992, 17).[45] See, for example: Bourdieu (Citation1982e, 46 and 53); Bourdieu and Boltanski (Citation1975, 3–5). See also, for example: Fabiani (1999, esp. 75–8 and 85–7); Gebauer (2005, esp. 148–62); Grenfell and James (Citation1998, 74); Lahire (1999b, esp. 24–6 and 46–7); Ledeneva (Citation1994, 12–3); Olivesi (2005, 27–46, 65–7 and 79–80).[46] My translation; original text in French: "le pouvoir de faire voir et de faire croire". See also Bourdieu (1979b, 5).[47] See, for example: Bourdieu ([1972] Citation1977, 83); Bourdieu (1980a, 28, 90 and 122); Bourdieu (Citation1982d, 16); Bourdieu (Citation1982f, 84); Bourdieu (1997b, 44, 166, 205 and 222); Bourdieu (1998a, 102); Bourdieu (2001a, 129); Bourdieu, Chamboredon and Passeron (1968, 46).[48] My translation; original text in French: "position d'autorité pour dire avec autorité ce que c'est peut dire avec autorité".[49] My translation; original text in French: "socialement reconnu".[50] My translation; original text in French: "reconnu comme légitime".[51] See, for example, Bourdieu (Citation1982e, 54, 55 and 85): "les stratégies linguistiques de la petite-bourgeoisie et en particulier sa tendance à l'hypercorrection"; "l'hypercorrection contrôlée"; "les «incorrections» par hypercorrection" (already referred to above).[52] See, for example, Bourdieu and Boltanski (Citation1975, 2 and 5): "la langue officielle d'une unité politique", and "[…] les langues régionales et les usages populaires de la langue officielle subissent un déclassement systématique […]".[53] See, for example, Bourdieu ([1972] Citation1977, 167): "instituted discourses" (already referred to above).[54] Italics removed from "normalized"; my translation; original text in French: "la langue normalisée".[55] My translation; original text in French: "la fétichisation de la langue légitime".[56] Excellent discussions can be found in Haug (1999), Rehmann (2004) and Reitz (2004).[57] On Bourdieu's use of the term "ideology", see, for example: Bourdieu ([1972] Citation1977, 188): "The system of symbolic goods production and the system producing the producers fulfil […] ideological functions […]" (italics added).—Bourdieu (1980a, 78): "l'idéologie de «l'acteur rationnel»".—Bourdieu (1982b, 19): "le pouvoir de faire voir et de faire croire" (already referred to above).—Bourdieu (Citation1982c, 8): "[…] la linguistique structurale ne pouvait devenir la science dominante dans les sciences sociales sans exercer un effet idéologique, en donnant les dehors delà scientificité à la naturalisation de ces produits de l'histoire que sont les objets symboliques […]" (italics added).—Bourdieu ([1984]-b 1993, 50): "[…] the unconscious is the forgetting of history. The product, separated from its social conditions of production, changes its meaning and exerts an ideological effect […]" (italics added).—Bourdieu (2001b, 28): "[…] l'idéologie intellectuelle par excellence, c'est l'idéologie de Mannheim, «l'intellectuel sans attaches ni racines », « nous sommes sans feu ni lieu, sans foi ni loi, nous sommes libres», […] c'est l'idéologie par excellence des intellectuels aliénés parce qu'ils se croient libres […]" (italics added).—Bourdieu and Wacquant (Citation1992c, 115): "the dominant vision of the intellectual universe, […] the ideology of the freischwebende Intelligenz" (italics in original).—See also, for example: Bidet (1996, 143); Karakayali (2004, 354); Pinto (1998, 191); Quiniou (1996, 117–34); Wacquant ([1993] 2002, 25–40).[58] My translation; original text in French: "imposition de la «représentation vraie» de la réalité".[59] My translation; original text in French: "le pouvoir de faire voir et de faire croire". See also Bourdieu (1979b, 5) (already referred to above).[60] My translation; original text in French: "de faire reconnaître".[61] My translation; original text in French: "méconnaissance collective". Cf. Bourdieu (Citation1982f, 74): "la méconnaissance sociale". Cf. also Bourdieu and Boltanski (Citation1975, 16): "principe de la méconnaissance".[62] Bourdieu (1997b, 39); my translation; original text in French: "reconnaissance sociale". Cf. Bourdieu (1980b, 66): "à faire connaître et reconnaître". Cf. also Bourdieu and Boltanski (Citation1975, 10): "par la reconnaissance de cette norme".[63] My translation; original text 'in' French: "imposition 'de la définition dominante'".[64] My translation; original text in French: "mode de perception légitime".[65] My translation; original text in French: "L'histoire des luttes symboliques".[66] My translation; original text in French: "imposition de la «représentation vraie» de la réalité" (already referred to above).[67] See Bourdieu (1998a, 9): "[…] faire apparaître une construction sociale naturalisée […] comme le fondement en nature de la division arbitraire qui est au principe et de la réalité et de la représentation de la réalité et qui s'impose parfois à la recherche elle-même" (italics added). See also Bourdieu (1980a, 67): "[…] de glisser du modèle de la réalité à la réalité du modèle".[68] Italics removed from "goes without saying because it comes without saying". See also Bourdieu ([1997] 2000, 9): "It is because we are implicated in the world that there is implicit content in what we think and say about it". (Italics added.)[69] My translation; original text in French: "s'il y a une vérité, c'est que la vérité est un enjeu de luttes".[70] My translation; original text in French: "luttes symboliques".[71] My translation; original text in French: "lutte à propos de la vision légitime du monde social".[72] My translation; original text in French: "à propos du monopole de la représentation scientifiquement légitime" ("scientifiquement" left out in the above translation).[73] My translation; original text in French: "inséparablement symbolique et politique".[74] See, for example: Bourdieu (1980a, 61 and 186); Bourdieu (2001a, 104 and 105); Accardo (1997, 106 and 112); Quiniou (1996, 121).[75] See, for example: Bourdieu, Chamboredon and Passeron (1968, 70); Bourdieu (Citation1982e, 57); Bourdieu ([1984]-c 1993, 58); Karakayali (2004, 356); Pels (1995, 88).[76] See, for example: Bourdieu (1980a, 186 and 209); Bourdieu ([1984]-a 1993, 9); Bourdieu ([1984]-b 1993, 49); Bourdieu (2001a, 104 and 105); Bourdieu (1997b, 91); Quiniou (1996, 121); Singer (1999, 283).[77] See, for example: Bourdieu, Chamboredon and Passeron (1968, 61); Bourdieu (2001a, 104 and 183); Lahire (1999a, 15).[78] See, for example, Bourdieu (Citation1982e, 27 and 43); my translation; original text in French: "marché linguistique".[79] See, for example, Bourdieu (Citation1982e, 35); my translation; original text in French: "marché des biens symboliques".[80] On various occasions, Bourdieu stresses the autonomous, idiosyncratic and irreducible nature of markets in particular and of social fields in general. See previous note on "the autonomy of the field".[81] See, for example, Habermas ([1984]-a 2001, 85–6, 93, 97–9 and 102–3). See also Susen (2009, 81–2 and 93–9) and Susen (2010a, esp. 107–11).[82] Numerous critical comments on Habermas's arguably idealistic account of language in particular and his communication-theoretic conception of society in general can be found in Bourdieu's writings. See, for example: Bourdieu (1979a, 581 n. 34); Bourdieu (Citation1982e, 25 n. 4); Bourdieu (Citation1982f, 60); Bourdieu (Citation1982g, 105); Bourdieu (Citation1982h, 192–4); Bourdieu (1988, 40 n. 55, 101 n. 1 and 110 n. 18); Bourdieu ([1992/1993] 2002, 271–2); Bourdieu (1993b, 210); Bourdieu (1994, 165, 170–1 and 235–6); Bourdieu (1995a, 10); Bourdieu (1995b, 114); Bourdieu (1997b, 32, 80, 81, 95, 99, 128, 131, 143, 145, 292 n. 13, 296 n. 8, 296–7 n. 9 and 297 n. 10); Bourdieu (1997a, 60); Bourdieu (1999, 338); Bourdieu (2001a, 10, 48, 161–2, 167 and 200); Bourdieu (2002a, 4 and 7); Bourdieu (2004b, 13); Bourdieu and Wacquant (Citation1992c, 139); Bourdieu and Wacquant (Citation1992c, 147, 154 n. 109 and 156); Bourdieu and Wacquant (1992e, 188–9).[83] My translation; original text in French: "[…] il est rare que, dans l'existence ordinaire, la langue fonctionne comme pur instrument de communication […]".[84] My translation; original text in French: "[a]nalyse matérialiste de l'économie des biens symboliques".[85] My translation; original text in French: "relation de communication entre un émetteur (chiffrement) et un récepteur (déchiffrement)".[86] My translation; original text in French: "échange linguistique".[87] Cf. Bourdieu (2002b, 351): "les revendications de validité [validity claims] devant s'affronter à des revendications concurrentes […] pour obtenir la reconnaissance […]".[88] My translation; original text in French: "[a]nalyse […] de l'économie des biens symboliques" (already referred to above).[89] My translation; original text in French: "communauté linguistique".[90] My translation; original text in French: "un «groupe de gens qui utilisent le même système de signes linguistiques»".[91] My translation; original text in French: "la condition".[92] My translation; original text in French: "de la production économique".[93] My translation; original text in French: "de la domination symbolique".[94] My translation (text slightly modified in the English translation); original text in French: "l'espace […] définit la langue".[95] My translation; original text in French: "la langue […] définit son espace".[96] My translation; original text in French: "[l]'unification du champ linguistique".[97] My translation; original text in French: "l'imposition de légitimité".[98] My translation; original text in French: "la valeur sociale de la compétence linguistique".[99] On Bourdieu's notion of "interconvertibility" see, for example, Bourdieu ([1972] Citation1977, 178).[100] On Bourdieu's conception of symbolic power, see, for example: Bourdieu (Citation1977); Bourdieu ([Citation1977] 1992); Bourdieu and Wacquant (1992d). See also, for example: Addi (2001); Cicourel (2004); Hallett (2003); Honneth (1984); Jurt (2004); Kraemer (2002); Leneveu (2002); Loos (Citation2000); Mauger (2005); Peter (2004); Schubert (2002); Terray (2003); Wacquant ([1993] 2002).[101] My translation; original text in French: "Relation entre un émetteur et un récepteur […]".[102] My translation; original text in French: "l'échange linguistique".[103] My translation; original text in French: "communauté linguistique".[104] My translation (already referred to above).[105] My translation; original text in French: "La violence symbolique est en effet cette forme de domination qui, dépassant l'opposition que l'on fait communément entre les rapports de sens et les rapports de force, entre la communication et la domination, ne s'accomplit qu'au travers de la communication sous laquelle elle se dissimule".[106] My translation; original text in French: "[…] à imposer la vérité partielle d'un groupe comme la vérité des relations objectives entre les groupes".[107] My translation; original text in French: "le processus de consécration-universalisation".[108] Cf. Bourdieu and Boltanski (Citation1975, 8): "la valeur qui lui est reconnue".[109] Literal translation from German into English: "sociability".[110] Literal translation from German into English: "balance of power" or "strength-relativity".[111] Literal translation from French into English: "relations of power" or "relations of force".[112] Cf. Bourdieu (2002b, 351): "les revendications de validité [validity claims] devant s'affronter à des revendications concurrentes […] pour obtenir la reconnaissance […]".[113] My translation; original text in French: "la domination […] toujours une dimension symbolique".[114] On Bourdieu's notion of complicity, see, for example, Bourdieu and Wacquant (1992d, 167).[115] My translation; original text in French: "[…] violence douce, insensible, invisible pour ses victimes mêmes, qui s'exerce pour l'essentiel par les voies purement symboliques de la communication et de la connaissance ou, plus précisément, de la méconnaissance, de la reconnaissance ou, à la limite, du sentiment".[116] My translation; original text in French: "les dominés contribuent à leur propre domination".[117] My translation; original text in French: "Il n'y a pas de pouvoir symbolique sans une symbolique du pouvoir".[118] On this point, cf. Susen (2010b, 64–6 and 76–8). On the relevance of the relationship between commonality and singularity to the analysis of culture, see, for instance, Susen (2011c, 182–4, 190–2 and 197).[119] See also Bourdieu (Citation1982f, 72). Cf. Kögler (Citation2011, 284) and Susen (2007, 240).[120] Cf. Susen (2007, 164–5). On this point, see also Susen (2011a), Susen (2011b) and Susen (2012).[121] In order to illustrate this point, it may be useful to introduce a typology that distinguishes between "foundational fields", "contingent fields" and "ephemeral fields". (i) A foundational field constitutes a civilizational ensemble of relationally structured conditions the existence of which is necessary for the emergence of social order. (ii) A contingent field represents a societal ensemble of relationally structured conditions the existence of which is possible within the emergence of social order. (iii) An ephemeral field stands for an interactional ensemble of relationally structured conditions the existence of which is largely irrelevant to the emergence of social order. (i) The most obvious examples of foundational fields are economic, political, cultural, artistic, linguistic and sexual fields, because no society can possibly exist without some degree of division of labour, small-scale and large-scale modes of action coordination, various forms of habitualization, diversified realms of aesthetic expression, everyday spaces of communicative interaction, and overt or subtle ways of regulating sexual reproduction. (ii) Contemporary examples of contingent fields are judicial, military, religious, scientific, academic and journalistic fields, because society may be organized more or less efficiently with, but can—at least in principle—exist without, legal arrangements, martial resources, sacred institutions, systematic forms of knowledge production, disciplinary divisions of cognition and media industries. (iii) Obvious examples of ephemeral fields are short-lived gatherings, political demonstrations, concerts, stage performances, parties, sport events, football matches, train journeys, lectures, seminars and classes; in short, an infinite list of collectively constructed situations and shared experiences.[122] My translation (already referred to above).[123] My translation; original text in French: "l'économie des biens symboliques".[124] On the Bourdieusian critique of rational choice theories and rational actor theories, see, for example, Bourdieu ([2000] 2005, esp. 1–17 and 209–22).Additional informationNotes on contributorsSimon SusenSimon Susen is a Senior Lecturer in Sociology at City University London. He previously held lectureships at Birkbeck College (University of London), Newcastle University and Goldsmiths College (University of London). He received his PhD from the University of Cambridge and studied sociology, politics and philosophy at a range of international universities and research centres, including the University of Edinburgh, the Colegio de México, the Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales in Mexico City and the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales in Paris. He is the author of The foundations of the social: Between critical theory and reflexive sociology (Oxford: Bardwell Press, 2007). Along with Celia Basconzuelo and Teresita Morel, he edited Ciudadanía territorial y movimientos sociales. Historia y nuevas problemáticas en el escenario latinoamericano y mundial (Río Cuarto: Ediciones del ICALA, 2010). Together with Bryan S. Turner, he recently edited The legacy of Pierre Bourdieu: Critical essays (London: Anthem Press, 2011). He is an Associate Member of the Bauman Institute and, together with Bryan S. Turner, Editor of the Journal of Classical Sociology. Correspondence to: Simon Susen, Department of Sociology, City University London, London, UK. Email: Simon.Susen@city.ac.uk
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