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Recovered Memory: The Exhibition of the Remains of Old St. Peter's in the Vatican Grottos

2011; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 80; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/00233609.2011.566935

1651-2294

Anna Bortolozzi,

Renaissance and Early Modern Studies

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Acknowledgements This paper anticipates parts of the results of a larger research project on the completion of new St. Peter's in Rome under the pontificate of Paul V (1605–21) and the recovery of early Christian Antiquity in seventeenth-century Rome. At present, the project is supported by Riksbankens Jubileumsfond through a post-doctoral fellowship at the Department of Art History of Stockholm University. The author is grateful to the Delegato della Fabbrica di San Pietro, monsignor Vittorio Lanzani, for allowing her to visit the Vatican Grottos on several occasions and to Pietro Zander for invaluable information. She would also like to thank Simona Turriziani and Assunta Di Sante of the Archivio Storico Generale della Fabbrica di San Pietro for their kindness and for facilitating her studies of the archival records. Notes 1. The most comprehensive work on the Vatican Grottos is Vittorio Lanzani, Le Grotte Vaticane, memorie storiche, devozioni, tombe dei papi, Rome, 2010 [1995]. For the monuments preserved in the Grottos, see Francesco Caglioti and Tomaso Montanari, »I monumenti funebri«, in La Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano, ed. A. Pinelli, Modena, 2000, [3] Saggi, pp. 359–365 and the related entries in ivi [4] Schede, pp. 849–902. For the fifteenth-century monuments see also Hannes Roser, St. Peter in Rom im 15. Jahrhundert. Studien zu Architektur un skulpturaler Ausstattung, Munich, 2005. 2. Francesco Maria Torrigio, Le sacre grotte Vaticane, cioè narratione delle cose più notabili, che sono sotto il pavimento della basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano in Roma, come corpi Santi, sepolcri de’ Sommi Pontefici, imperatori, cardinali, vescovi et altre persone segnalate, statue, epitafii, imagini, et altre cose memorabili. Con alcuni brevi discorsi del Volto Santo, Lancia, Colonna santa, Navicella, Scale, Guglia, Campane, Pilo battesimale, etc., Viterbo, 1618. 3. Torrigio's most frequent attribute for describing the Christian antiquities from old St. Peter's is antico or antichissimo. However, several expressions of aesthetic appreciation can be found in his text: bellissimo pilo di marmo bianco (Torrigio, 1618, p. 40), historie di rilievo stupendamente intagliate (ivi, p. 41), un bel pilo di tre palmi (ivi, p. 54), un luogo abbellito di variii marmi et opere di mosaico (ivi, p. 66), una bella statuetta di Maria Vergine (ivi, p. 70), una bella effigie di Maria Vergine (ivi, p. 66), due bellissime colonne di marmo a vite, lavorate di mosaico (ivi, p. 67), etc. 4. The first appellation of museum given to the Vatican Grottos is in Giovanni Pietro Chattard, Nuova descrizione del Vaticano o sia della sacrosanta basilica di S. Pietro, Rome 1762, p. 217. He is followed by Vincenzo Briccolani's Descrizione della sacrosanta basilica vaticana sue piazze, portici, grotte, sacristie, parti superiori, interne ed esterne e loro misure, Rome, 1791, p. 110: »A buon diritto le Grotte Vaticane possono chiamarsi il Museo sacro della Basilica, essendo le medesime arricchite di Lapidi, Musaici, Pitture sul muro, e su la lavagna, e varie sculture in esse collocate in seguito alla demolizione della vecchia Sacristia e del vecchio Studio del Musaico. Oltre a che gli articoli di belle arti, che vi si ammirano, stante la differente loro maniera, sono un indizio non fallace dell'epoche medesime.« 5. On the antiquarianism of the seventeenth century and the interest in the Christian Middle Ages, see among others Pietro Fremiotti, La riforma cattolica del secolo decimosesto e gli studi di archeologia cristiana, Rome, 1926; Arnaldo Momigliano, »Ancient History and the Antiquarians«, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, No. XIII, 1950, pp. 285–315; Giovanni Previtali, La fortuna dei primitivi, dal Vasari ai neoclassici, Torino, 1964; Ingo Herklotz, »Historia sacra und mittelalterliche Kunst wärend der zweiten Hälfte des 16. Jahrhunderts in Rom«, in Baronio e l'Arte, Atti del Convegno internazionale di studi, Centro di Studi Sorani »Vincenzo Patriarca«, eds R. De Maio and A. Borromeo, Sora, 1985, pp. 21–74; Ingo Herklotz, Cassiano dal Pozzo und die Archäologie des 17. Jahrhunderts, Munich, 1999; Francis Haskell, History and its Images, Yale, 1993, in particular pp. 101–111; Peter Burke, »Images as Evidence in Seventeenth-Century Europe«, Journal of the History of Ideas, No. 64, 2003, pp. 273–296. 6. See Christof Thoenes, »Projects by Antonio da Sangallo the Younger for Pope Paul III«, in The Renaissance from Brunelleschi to Michelangelo: The Representation of Architecture, eds H.A. Millon and V. Magnago Lampugnani, exh. cat., Milan, 1994, pp. 634–648, in particular n. 348; id., »St. Peter's 1534–1546«, in The Architectural Drawings of Antonio da Sangallo the Younger and his Circle. II, Churches, Villas, the Pantheon, Tombs and Ancient Inscriptions, eds Ch. L. Frommel and N. Adams, New York and London, 2000, pp. 33–43. 7. Lanzani, 2010, p. 20 and 27. 8. B. M. Apollonj Ghetti, A. Ferrua, E. Iosi and E. Kirschbaum, Esplorazioni sotto la confessione di San Pietro in Vaticano eseguite negli anni 1940–1949, Città del Vaticano, 1951, pp. 205–222. 9. According to a medieval tradition probably initiated by Guglielmo Durando (second half of the thirteenth century), in 319 pope Sylvester I exhumed the bones of the apostles Peter and Paul, divided them on a porphyry slab, collected half of them each in two bronze cases and placed the cases under the main altars of the churches of St. Peter's and St. Paul's. The truthfulness of this tradition was a matter of discussion among church historians during the Counter-Reformation (Ingo Herklotz, Gli eredi di Costantino, Rome, 2000). Antonio Maria Torrigio (Torrigio, 1618, p. 39) accepts the tradition and confirms that in the chapel of the Holy Apostles the bones of both Peter and Paul are preserved. During the pontificate of Paul V, the belief in the concordia apostolorum that gives equal importance to Peter and Paul as co-founders of the Roman Church was particularly emphasized. 10. Lanzani, 2010, pp. 23–31. 11. Payments to the mason Michelangelo di Pietro Lapi for the works in the passage are in AFSP, Arm. 25, E 142, c. 36v, 7 May 1593. 12. Francesco Maria Torrigio, Le sacre grotte vaticane…, Rome, 1639 (3rd ed.), p. 378. The position of this opening is indicated with the letter M in the work of Aemiliano Sarti and Iosepho Settele, Ad Philippi Laurentii Dionysii opus de Vaticanis cryptis Appendix…, Rome, 1840, App. tab. 2 (the authors also suggest that a twin door might exist in the south-east corner of the Grotte Vecchie (ivi, p. 11, Tabulae Appendici II). Traces of a small door (2.02 x 1 m), open on the right side of the so-called muro divisorio, were found during the archaeological excavations made in c. 1950 (B. M. Apollonj Ghetti et alii, 1951, p. 212). This door is indicated in a drawing by Giacomo Grimaldi as Ostium ducens in Sacellum Gregorianum (Giacomo Grimaldi, Descrizione della basilica antica di S. Pietro in Vaticano. Codice Barberini Latino 2733, ed. R. Niggl, Città del Vaticano, 1972, pp. 50–51, fig. 56). 13. Howard Hibbard, Carlo Maderno and Roman Architecture 1580–1630, London, 1971, pp. 155–188; Christof Thoenes, »Madernos St.-Peter-Entwürfe«, in An Architectural Progress in the Renaissance and Baroque. Sojourns in and out of Italy. Essays in Architectural History presented to H. Hager on his Sixty-sixth Birthday, Papers in Art History from Pennsylvania State University, I, eds H. A. Millon and S. Scott Munshower, 1992, pp. 170–193; Margaret A. Kuntz, »Maderno's Building Procedures at New St. Peter's: Why the Façade First?«, Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte, Vol. 68, No. 1, 2005, pp. 41–60; Joseph Connors, »Carlo Maderno e San Pietro«, in Petros eni, eds M. C. Carlo-Stella, P. Liverani and Maria Luisa Polichetti, exh. cat., Fabbrica di San Pietro, Edindustria, 2006, pp. 111–115. See also Anna Bortolozzi, »Il completamento del nuovo S. Pietro sotto il pontificato di Paolo V: disegni e dibattiti 1605–1613«, forthcoming in Römisches Jahrbuch der Bibliotheca Hertziana, Vol. 39 (2009/2010). 14. AFSP, Arm. 1, A 10, n. 13, c. 86, 24 July 1608, Motu proprio by Paul V. See also Gaetano Miarelli Mariani, »L'antico San Pietro. Demolirlo o conservarlo?«, in L'architettura della Basilica di San Pietro. Storia e costruzione, Atti del Convegno Internazionale di Studi, Roma, Castel Sant'Angelo, 7–10 novembre 1995, ed. G. Spagnesi, Rome, 1997, pp. 229–242; Louise Rice, »La coesistenza delle due basiliche«, ivi, pp. 255–260; Paolo Liverani, »Der Bau der Basilika St. Peter und die Anfänge der Christlichen Archäologie«, in Barock im Vatikan: 1572–1676, eds J. Frigs and A. Nesselrath, exh. cat., Leipzig, 2005, pp. 427–435. 15. Louise Rice, The Altars and the Altarpieces of New St. Peter's: Outfitting the Basilica, 1621–1666, Cambridge, 1997, pp. 34–46. 16. Grimaldi, 1972, p. 227. Rice, 1997, p. 40 and fig. 54. 17. AFSP, Arm. 26, A 181, libro dei mandati 1606–7, c. 1r, 5 January 1606, »A mastro Matteo de Rossi e mastro Giovanni d'Urbino scalpellini scudi 20 di moneta a bonconto dell'altare novo che fanno in San Pietro dove s'ha da mettere il corpo di S. Petronilla et il suo crocefisso«. Rice, 1997, pp. 182–186 and figs 51 and 79. 18. The icon of the Madonna della Colonna and Cavallini's wooden crucifix were originally placed over two of the seven privileged altars of the basilica. Another valuable altarpiece, Michelangelo's Pietà, was also later reinstated in the new church. Rice, 1997, pp. 216–221 and figs 55 and 80. 19. The only funeral monuments reinstated in the new church were the two bronze monuments of Sixtus IV (Roser, 2005, pp. 188–197) and Innocentius VIII (Roser, 2005, pp. 197–206). 20. Patrizia Di Benedetti, »Il reimpiego di alcune ‘memoriae’ della vecchia basilica vaticana durante il pontificato di Paolo V Borghese. Nuove testimonianze documetarie«, Bollettino d'Arte, Vol. 1, anno XCIV, 2009 (January–March), pp. 13–40. For the monument of Pius II, Roser, 2005, pp. 169–178. 21. Grimaldi, 1972, p. 148, »ambitus sacrae Confessionis sanctis imaginibus, vetustissimis epitaphiis et inscriptionibus, clarissimis memoriis e prefati templi ruinis servatis elegantissime ornatus«. See also an Avviso dated 4 October 1606: »sendo anco state portate tutte le sepolture delli Papi nella chiesa sotterranea et iviccomodate per ordine«, ASV, Segreteria di Stato, Avvisi 2, c. 262r. 22. Torrigio, 1618. 23. »… cuncta servarentur diligenter in pictura et scriptura". Iussio sancti domini nostri Pauli V canonicis basilicae vivae vocis oraculo de veteribus eius templi Vaticani servandis memoriis, 3 October 1605, recorded in Grimaldi, 1972, p. 148. The documentation work was undertaken by the canon Giacomo Grimaldi, with the help of Domenico Taselli da Lugo and other draughtsmen. Grimaldi's manuscript, Instrumenta autentica, was presented to Paul V on 29 May 1620. For Grimaldi, see Reto Niggl, Giacomo Grimaldi (1568–1623). Leben und Werk des römischen Archäologen und Historikers, Munich, 1971 and the introduction to Grimaldi, 1972. 24. Among the private persons who purchased or received as gifts pieces of antiquities from old St. Peter's between 1607 and 1617 are Cosimo »furiere di Nostro Signore«, Giovanbattista Borghese, Cardinal Scipione Borghese, Nicolò Perrino »penitenziere di San Pietro«, Giovanni Battista Simoncelli »guardarobiere di Nostro Signore«, Cardinal Giovan Battista Pallotta, the Ambassador of Venice, Lodovico Cigoli, Cardinal Benedetto Giustiniani, Giovanni Angelo Altemps, Cardinal Carlo Conti, Giovanbattista Costaguti. Johannes A. Orbaan, »Der Abbruch Alt-Sankt-Peter«, Jahrbuch der Preussischen Kunstsammlungen, Beiheft 39, 1919, p. 16, n. 2 and Di Benedetti, 2009. 25. For the works in the confessio, AFSP, Arm. 1, A 3, nn. 65–74, 76. See also Hibbard, 1971, pp. 165–166 and Federico Bellini, »La moderna Confessione di San Pietro: le proposte di Ferrabosco e Maderno«, in La Confessione nella Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano/Fabbrica di S. Pietro in Vaticano, ed. A. M. Pergolizzi, Cinisello Balsamo, 1999, pp. 43–55. 26. Hibbard, 1971, p. 165. 27. The different shape of the two staircases was conditioned by their entrances at the eastern piers of the dome and by the size of the monuments they had to match: the tomb of Paul III and the Holy column. The works for the two lateral staircases were completed by 1617 (AFSP, Arm. 1, A 6, n. 64, pp. 241r–246v). 28. A document by Paul V states that »Sacram Beati Petri Principis Apostolorum aperire, et exornare Confessionem … ut novum altare extrui ad eam possit, in quo non modico cum priorem sacerdotum, et populi spirituali fructu celebrari frequenter possit« (ASV, Fondo Borghese, s. IV, 44, c. 296r, Sulla confessione vaticana, sine data). The idea at the base of the new plan was the re–establishment of the original sixth-century arrangement (»confessio sacra in pristinum et antiquissimum statum restituatur«, ivi). 29. AFSP, Arm. 1, A 3, n. 77, cc. 375r–378v, 16 July 1617 and n. 78, cc. 379r–380v, 26 July 1617. Nine marble bas-reliefs from the Ciborium of Sixtus IV were taken from »the stock-room by the lime kiln«, three epitaphs from »the room of the Capitolo«, another epitaph from »the staircase of the church«, a marble relief representing God the Father was taken from a generic store room, a marble statue of the Virgin came from »the Archive«, and two marble inscriptions and three marble stairs from the »botega di Bacchano«. 30. Benedetto Drei was a skilled mason who worked for the Fabbrica di San Pietro from c.1600. Detailed accounts of the works made by him in the Grottos are in AFSP, Arm. 1, A 3, n. 77, c. 375r–378v (16 July 1917) and n. 78, c. 379r–380v (26 July 1617); Arm 1, A 6, n. 64, cc. 241r–246v, sine data; Arm. 1, B 14, n. n. 34, c. 308r (June 1619) and n. 35, c. 112v (2 November 1619). For Benedetto Drei and his son Pietro Paolo, see Sarah Mc Phee, »The Long Arm of the Fabbrica: Saint Peter's and the City of Rome«, in Sankt Peter in Rom 1506–2006: Beiträge der internationalen Tagung vom 22–25 Februar 2006 in Bonn, eds G. Satzinger and S. Schütze, Munich, 2008, pp. 353–373. 31. The first plan drawn by Benedetto Drei documents the shape of the Grottos before 1628 (see Fig. 1). The plan was engraved and printed in 1635, with a few additions. In the same year a new plan of the Grottos, which recorded the works made by Urban VIII, was engraved by Pietro Paolo Drei, son of Benedetto. For those plans see Lanzani, 2010, pp. 79–86 and Simona Turriziani, entries n. 275–276 in J. Frigs and A. Nesselrath, 2005, pp. 436–437. 32. AFSP, Arm. 1, A 11, n. 23, cc. 301–307. 33. Ivi. 34. AFSP, Arm. 1, A 3, n. 75, c. 305r. A complete list of the scenes is recorded in G. Grimaldi, 1972, pp. 306–307, n. 1. The models for Ricci's frescos were probably the drawings made during the demolition of the old church (1605–08) by Domenico Tasselli and other draughtsmen as a complement to the manuscript of Giacomo Grimaldi, Instrumenta autentica. Copies of Ricci's frescos in the Grottos are in a manuscript from 1633 held by the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, cod. Barb. lat. 4410. See Pierluigi Silvan, »I cicli pittorici delle Grotte Vaticane. Alcuni aspetti poco noti dell'opera di Giovan Battista Ricci da Novara e di Carlo Pellegrini«, Arte Lombarda, Vol. 90/91, No. 3–4, 1989, pp. 104–121 and Daniela Gallavotti Cavallero, »La decorazione a fresco nella Confessione di San Pietro«, in Pergolizzi, 1999, pp. 57–71. 35. A similar kind of museo dipinto was planned 100 years later by the antiquarian Francesco Bianchini (1662–1729) as a complement to the display of the Christian antiquities in his never opened Museo ecclesiastico. See Francesco Bianchini, La istoria universale provata con monumenti e figurata con simboli degli antichi…, Rome, 1697 and Brigitte Sölch, Francesco Bianchini (1662–1729) und die Anfänge öffentlicher Museen in Rom, Berlin, 2007. 36. Torrigio, 1618, p. 78. The tomb of Paul III was later moved to the apse of the basilica. 37. Torrigio, 1618, p. 83 and Grimaldi, 1972, p. 307, »Instructio pro peregrinis ad sacram beati Petri confessionem«. For the instructions to the visitors of the Grottos see also Lanzani, 2010, pp. 102–110. 38. Lanzani, 2010, pp. 72–78. 39. For the modern campaigns of restoration in the Vatican Grottos see Pietro Zander, »Le Grotte«, in La Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano, ed. A. Pinelli, Modena, 2000, [3] Saggi, pp. 381–390 and Vittorio Lanzani and Pietro Zander, Le Grotte Vaticane. Intervento di Restauro 2002–2003, Rome, 2003. 40. I am grateful to the Bibliotheca Hertziana in Rome for allowing me to study the Anderson photos preserved in their Fototeca. 41. Roser, 2005, pp. 94–101. 42. Simona Olivetti, »Il ciborio della Sacra Lancia di Innocenzo Vlll: un'impresa quattrocentesca dimenticata«, Storia dell'arte, 71, 1991, pp. 7–24; Roser, 2005, pp. 127–133. 43. Torrigio, 1618, p. 67. 44. Torrigio, 1618, p. 12. Roser, 2005, pp. 223–231. 45. AFSP, Arm. 1, A 3, n. 77, c. 375r. 46. Johannes Röll, »The Ciborium of Sixtus IV«, in Sisto IV. Le arti a Roma nel Primo Rinascimento, ed. Fabio Benzi, Rome, 2000, pp. 384–397; Roser, 2005, pp. 103–116. 47. See note 9. 48. AFSP, Arm. 1, B 14, n. 34, c. 108r, June 1619. 49. AFSP, Arm. 1, B 18, n. 35, c. 302r, 3 September 1619. 50. An example is the fresco decoration of Santi Nereo and Achilleo in Rome, executed under the direction of Cardinal Cesare Baronio between 1596 and 1597. The scenes representing the lives and martyrdoms of the title saints on the upper walls of the nave were complemented by elegant painted inscriptions describing the subject matter. Alexandra Herz, »Cardinal Cesare Baronio's Restoration of SS. Nereo ed Achilleo and S. Cesareo de’ Appia«, Art Bulletin, No. 4, 1988, pp. 590–630. On painting and Counter-Reformation, see Paolo Prodi, »Ricerche sulla teorica delle arti figurative nella Riforma Cattolica«, Archivio italiano per la storia della Pietà, 4, Rome, 1962, pp. 121–212. 51. AFSP, Arm. 1, A 3, n. 80, cc. 387r–388r, 5 February 1619. For the fresco decoration of the corridors see AFSP, Arm. 1, A 3, n. 75, c. 303r–312v, Silvan, 1989 and Gallavotti Cavallero, 1999. 52. For an interpretation of spolia see among others, Salvatore Settis, »Continuità, distanza, conoscenza. Tre usi dell'antico«, in Memoria dell'antico nell'arte italiana, Vol. 3, Dalla tradizione all'archeologia, ed. S. Settis, Turin, 1986, pp. 375–486; Lucilla de Lachenal, Spolia. Uso e reimpiego dell'antico dal III al XIV secolo, Milan, 1995; Joachim Poeschke, ed., Antike Spolien in der Architektur des Mittelalters und der Renaissance, Munich, 1996; Dale Kinney, »Spolia. Damnatio and renovatio memoriae«, Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, No. 42, 1997, pp. 117–48; Maria Fabricius Hansen, The Eloquence of Appropriation: Prolegomena to an Understanding of Spolia in Early Christian Rome, Rome, 2003. For St. Peter's, Rodolfo Lanciani, Storia degli scavi di Roma, Rome, 1989–2002 [1907], Vol. IV, pp. 209–217 and Vol. V, pp. 40–62; Lex Bosman, The Power of Tradition: Spolia in the Architecture of St. Peter's in the Vatican, Hilversum, 2004; Dale Kinney, »Spolia«, in St. Peter's in the Vatican, ed. W. Tronzo, Cambridge, 2005, pp. 16–47. 53. Bianchini 1697, quoted in Momigliano, 1950, p. 299. 54. The accounts for the placing of the bust of Benedict XII in the cappella della Bocciata are in AFSP, Arm. 1, A 3, 77, cc. 375r–378v, 16 July 1617. 55. Torrigio, 1618, pp. 71–73 and photo Anderson 20462. 56. On the experience and representation of the past, even if mainly related to the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, see Stephen Bann, The Invention of History: Essays on the Representation of the Past, Manchester and New York, 1990, in particular pp. 122–147. 57. On the so-called principle of conformità see E. Panofsky, »The First Page of Giorgio Vasari's ‘Libro’«, in Meanings in the Visual Arts, London, 1970, pp. 206–276, in particular p. 228. 58. Bann, 1990, p. 134. 59. Carlo La Bella, »Recupero di antichi frammenti. Tracce dell'eredità dei restauri baroniani nelle Grotte Vaticane di Paolo V Borghese«, in Baronio e le sue fonti. Atti del convegno internazionale di Studi (Sora 10–13 October 2007), ed. L. Gulia, Sora, 2009, pp. 791–830. 60. Herz, 1988. 61. Augusto Roca De Amicis, »Borromini in Laterano sotto Alessandro VII. Le memorie antiche«, Palladio, 20, July–December 1997, pp. 61–76. 62. Peter M. Lukehart, »Carving out Lives: The Role of Sculptors in the Early History of the Accademia di San Luca«, in Collecting Sculpture in Early Modern Europe (Studies in the History of Art 70, Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts, Symposium Papers XLVII), eds N. Penny and E. D. Schmidt, New Haven and London, 2008, pp. 185–217 (quote on p. 202). See also Orietta Rossi Pinelli, »Chirurgia della memoria: scultura antica e restauri storici«, in Memoria dell'antico nell'arte italiana, Torino, 1986, 3. Dalla tradizione all'archeologia, ed. S. Settis, pp. 183–252. 63. Jennifer Montagu, Roman Baroque Sculpture: The Industry of Art, Yale, New Haven and London, 1989, in particular pp. 151–172. 64. Filippo Baldinucci, Vocabolario toscano dell'arte del Disegno, Florence, 1681 [Florence, 1985], p. 134, under the entry »Restaurare«, quoted in Donatella Livia Sparti, »Tecnica e teoria del restauro scultoreo a Roma nel Seicento, con una verifica sulla collezione di Flavio Chigi«, Storia dell'Arte, No. 92, 1998, pp. 60–131. 65. Sylvia Pressouyre, Nicolas Cordier: recherches sur la sculpture à Rome autour de 1600, Rome, 1984. 66. On the relationship between the display of antiquities and antiquarian studies in the seventeenth century see also Henning Wrede, »L'antico nel Seicento«, in L'idea del bello. Viaggio per Roma nel Seicento con Giovan Pietro Bellori, exh. cat., eds E. Borea and C. Gasparri, Rome, 2000, Vol. 1, pp. 7–15. 67. Lucia Guerrini, Palazzo Mattei di Giove. Le antichità, Rome, 1982. 68. Anna Anguissola, »Storia della collezione Lancellotti di scultura antica«, in Collezione di antichità di Palazzo Lancellotti ai Coronari. Archeologia, Architettura, Restauro, eds M. Barbanera and A. Freccero, Rome, 2008, pp. 47–82. 69. Patrizia Cavazzini, Palazzo Lancellotti ai Coronari: cantiere di Agostino Tassi, Rome, 1998, pp. 26–37 and Gerda Panofsky-Soergel, »Zur Geschichte des Palazzo Mattei di Giove«, Römisches Jahrbuch für Kunstgeschichte, No. 11, 1967–68, pp. 109–188. 70. Examples of such pastiches are a panel with a scene of hunting formed by 24 different fragments and a panel with a scene of amazzonomachia made by 23 fragments in the Lancellotti courtyard. See Anna Anguissola, 2008, cat. n. 62 and 63, pp. 222–225. 71. Kristina Herrmann Fiore, »The Exhibition of Sculpture on the Villa Borghese Façades in the Time of Cardinal Scipione Borghese«, in Penny and Schmidt, 2008, pp. 219–246. 72. Roser, 2005, pp. 178–188 and in particular note 148. 73. The bas-relief is now stored at the Louvre. See Kristina Herrmann Fiore, ed., Dürer e l'Italia, Catalogo della mostra (Rome, Scuderie del Quirinale 10 march–10 juny 2007), Milan, 2007, n. II.31, p. 175. 74. The list of items taken from St. Peter's by Scipione Borghese is in AFSP, Arm. 1, A 11, n. 23, c. 302 and c. 307. 75. In 1617 Giustiniani received, as a present from the parish priest of St. Peter's, the only surviving fragments of the medieval frescos of the old portico, the two heads of the apostles Peter and Paul from the Dream of Constantine (Silvia Danesi Squarzina, »Frammenti dell'antico S. Pietro in una collezione del primo Seicento«, in Arte d'Occidente: Studi di Storia dell'Arte in onore di Angiola Maria Romanini, ed. A. Cadei, Rome, 1999, 3, pp. 1187–1197). In the Giustiniani collection were also exhibited two fragments from the lost mosaic of the front of the old basilica and one fragment of mosaic from the dismantled sepulchral monument of Bonifacius VIII (Silvia Danesi Squarzina, La collezione Giustiniani, Inventari I, Milan, 2003, pp. 173–178). A fragment of mosaic representing the Ecclesia Romana from the apse of old St. Peter's has been identified in the collection of Maffeo Barberini (Antonio Iacobini, »Il mosaico absidale di S. Pietro in Vaticano«, in Fragmenta Picta. Affreschi e mosaici staccati del Medioevo romano, ex. cat., (Rome, Castel Sant'Angelo, 15 December 1989–18 February 1990), eds M. Andaloro et al., Rome, 1989, pp. 119–129). In 1607 Francesco Maria Del Monte paid to the Fabbrica 50 scudi for a marble sarcophagus found in the foundation of the new church. We do not know whether it was a pagan or Christian sarcophagus. AFSP, Arm. 26, A 183, fol. 9b, quoted in Orbaan, 1919, p. 16, n. 2. 76. The Cassiano Dal Pozzo's collection of Christian inscriptions and drawings after Christian Antiquities is a notable example of this trend. John Osborne and Amanda Claridge, eds, The Paper Museum of Cassiano Dal Pozzo: Early Christian and Medieval Antiquities [Vols 1–2], London, 1996–1998 and Ingo Herklotz, »Cassiano and the Christian Tradition«, in Cassiano Dal Pozzo's Paper Museum (Quaderni Puteani; 2), Milano, 1992, pp. 31–48. 77. Vincenzo Fiocchi Nicolai, »Le catacombe di S. Sebastiano, e le origini dell'archeologia cristiana«, in S. Filippo Neri nella realtà romana del XVI secolo. Atti del Convegno di studio in occasione del IV centenario della morte di S. Filippo Neri (1595–1995), eds M. T. Bonadonna and Russo-N. del Re, Rome, 2000, pp. 105–130. 78. The exploration and study of the Roman catacombs developed in the last decades of the sixteenth century and the early years of the seventeenth century by an enthusiastic generation of scholars, included Pompeo Ugonio, Alfonso Ciaconio, Cesare Baronio, Philip van Winghe and Antonio Bosio. Their research culminated in the posthumous publication of the comprehensive work of Antonio Bosio, Roma sotterranea. Antonio Bosio, Roma sotterranea. Opera postuma…compita, disposta, e accresciuta dal M. R. P. Giovanni Severani, Rome, 1632. See also Rodolfo Lanciani, Storia degli scavi di Roma, Rome, 1989–2002, Vols IV and V. 79. Lorenzo Dionisi, Sacrarum Vaticanae Basilicae cryptarum monumenta…, Rome, 1773. 80. Aemiliano Sarti and Iosepho Settele, Ad Philippi Laurentii Dionysii opus de Vaticanis cryptis Appendix…, Rome, 1840. 81. »Elles [les Cryptes Vaticanes] constituent un véritable musée, malheureusement un musée où règne le plus parfait désordre. Impossible de deviner quel principe a présidé au classement des 238 numéros. Inscriptions, sarcophages, peintures, mosaïques, statues, se succèdent sans aucun souci de la chronologie: une inscription damasienne suit de près une mosaïque de Giotto et précède un fragment de sculpture du XV ou du XVI siècle; des épitaphes du VI siècle avoisinent du XIII; bien plus, les fragments d'un même monument sont dispersés de différents côtés, tandis que sont réunis sous un même chiffre des monuments qui n'ont absolument rien de commun.« Orazio Marucchi, Éléments d'archéologie chrétienne, Paris and Rome, 1902, 3, Basiliques et églises de Rome, p. 130. Desire Dufresne confirmed the judgement of Marucchi in his pocket guide to the Vatican Grottos, Les cryptes vaticanes, Paris and Rome, 1902, pp. 4–5. 82. As discussed earlier, in seventeenth-century displays of sculpture the appreciation of the single piece or fragment was generally subordinated to the meaning of the entire programme and to its aesthetic result. See Wrede, 2000, p. 13.