Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

Latin American Science Moves into the Spotlight

2007; Cell Press; Volume: 131; Issue: 7 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1016/j.cell.2007.12.008

1097-4172

Marcia Triunfol,

Science and Science Education

With new incentives, some governments in Latin America are starting to increase investment in basic and applied research. Although the news is encouraging, scientists in this region still face many challenges ahead. With new incentives, some governments in Latin America are starting to increase investment in basic and applied research. Although the news is encouraging, scientists in this region still face many challenges ahead. After the economic crises of the 1990s in Latin America, when Argentina's economy minister famously advised scientists to go “wash dishes” as a career, science in the region is seeing better times. Boosted by a 5.6% jump in economic growth rate in 2006, with projections of a 20.6% increase in gross domestic product (GDP) by 2008 (http://www.eclac.org/publicaciones/xml/2/29312/lcg2338i.pdf), and motivated by a heartening increase in the number of scientific papers published by Latin American authors, governments (particularly those of Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and Mexico) are announcing new packages and incentives to foster science and technology. It is hoped that these encouraging developments and the increased focus on science and technology will also benefit the rest of the region. Brazil started to increase investment in science 10 to 15 years ago through several initiatives including one to increase the number of graduate school programs, one to support research centers of excellence (PRONEX), and one that introduced science and technology grants funded by Brazilian companies whose revenues result from the use of natural resources (Fundos Setoriais). However, these initiatives pale in comparison to the announcement last month by Brazil's President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva that his government has earmarked US $22.9 billion (US $1 = R $1.79) to spend on science, technology, and innovation over the next 3 years. His plan focuses on establishing and consolidating a national system for science, technology, and innovation; promoting technological innovation in companies and industry; advancing R&D in disciplines considered to be promising, such as nanotechnology and biotechnology; and promoting science and technology to society. “It's a package like no other. I don't think we ever had something like this in Brazil” says geneticist Mayana Zatz, Dean of Research at the Universidade de São Paulo, who is known for her work on muscular dystrophy and for supporting the use of embryonic stem cells in research. Zatz expects to see “a paradigm shift in the way people see and do science in Brazil.” Says Rafael Roesler, head of the Pharmacology Department at Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul and a researcher at the Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre, “transferring knowledge from our labs to industry will be easier now.” For Laila Naoum, a molecular biologist who recently returned to Brazil after spending several years as a postdoc at the Marine Biology Laboratory at Woods Hole in the United States, the new announcement gives her hope for finding a permanent position in a Brazilian university or a place in industry. “When I was in the US, I wished there was some type of bank of opportunities in Brazil for people like me. I think that now more opportunities will be available and finding a position, I hope, will be easier.” Meanwhile, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, the new President of Brazil's neighbor Argentina, who took office several weeks ago, has announced the creation of Argentina's first ever Ministry for Science and Technology. Until now, science and technology have been overseen by offices integrated within a much bigger ministry that also included education. Cristina Fernández de Kirchner and her government are expected to increase investments in science and technology to 1% of GDP by 2010 (in 2006, investment was 0.58% of GDP) (http://www.secyt.gov.ar/plan_bicentenario/documentos_finales/plan_bicentenario_publicacion.pdf). Of that proposed 1% GDP, it is expected that half will be provided by public funds and half by the private sector. Indeed, the new government has already announced a 20% increase in funding for a select list of science and technology projects to be launched in 2008. The new ministry is to be headed by José Lino Barañao, a molecular biologist known for his work with transgenic animals, who was president of the National Agency for Scientific and Technological Promotion. And his message is clear: science and industry need to talk. “If the link between science and industry is missing, the scientific creativity and knowledge end up giving fruits elsewhere… it's like producing petroleum and then giving it away,” he said in a statement published in Argentina's daily newspaper La Nacion. “Dr. Barañao is an excellent scientist with great experience in administration who has clear ideas about the role of science and technology in a developing country and is well respected by the scientific community,” says Alberto Kornbliht, a professor of molecular and cell biology at Universidad de Buenos Aires in Argentina and an HHMI International Research Scholar. Nevertheless, the expectations of Argentinian scientists are running high. Says immunologist Gabriel Rabinovich, also at Universidad de Buenos Aires, “We hope that the newly elected President, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, will promote a sustained growth of the scientific community in Argentina. However, much remains to be done in terms of increasing scientific competitiveness in the region and avoiding excessive brain drain of talented South Americans to developed countries. That includes fostering international collaborations, creating stronger ties with industry, giving strong support in the initial phases of independent careers and stimulating public awareness of the importance of scientific knowledge for national development.” However, Rabinovich does point out that “despite serious economic and political challenges, a tradition of fundamental research has always been fostered in Argentina.” Although delighted at the recent announcement, both researchers agree that there remain many challenges ahead for science in Argentina. Perhaps Cristina Fernández de Kirchner's announcement was inspired by the new president of Chile, Michelle Bachelet, who, when elected in 2006, promised that innovation and entrepreneurship would be one of the main transformations of her administration. She announced her intention to increase R&D spending by 50%, which means that by 2010 the country should be spending 1% of its GDP on science and technology (http://www.conicyt.cl/573/articles-7931_recurso_1.pdf). Already the number of graduate science fellowships has increased by 112% in 2006 compared to the previous year, and for the first time research grants have been given to young researchers (114 projects total). From 2004 to 2006, the investment in science increased 50% according to a report by the National Commission for Scientific and Technological Investigation (CONOCYT). The investment in 2007 is almost twice the amount invested in 2004 (http://www.conicyt.cl/573/article-7395.html). Further North, in Mexico, a 2006 report by the National Council for Science and Technology (CONACYT) shows progress thanks to a special program launched in 2001. The number of students enrolled in science and technology PhD programs increased from 488 in 1994 to 2,009 in 2005, and the number of researchers brought under the umbrella of the National Science and Technology System (in public universities or centers) increased by 62% during the period 2001–2005. The 2001 program had three goals: to establish a state policy on science and technology, to increase capacity, and to improve competitiveness and innovation. To accomplish these goals, the Mexican government passed the Science and Technology Law in 2002, which created a special fund for science and technology, called Sectorial Funds, supported by monies from the ministries and other governmental agencies, as well as from states and districts (mixed funds). The Law stated that Vicente Fox's government would need to invest 1% of the country's GDP in science by the end of his term in 2006. According to a CONACYT report, the investment in R&D in 2005 was still only 0.43% GDP (http://www.siicyt.gob.mx/siicyt/docs/Estadisticas3/Informe2006/Capitulo%205.pdf). Despite the recent good news, Latin America still has a long way to go to catch up with developed countries (Table 1, Table 2). For example, the share of the world's gross expenditure on R&D (GERD) in 2002 by Latin American and Caribbean countries was 2.6, while North America's share was 37 and Asia's share was 31.5 (see Table 1). In 2004, Brazil invested 0.91% of its GDP in R&D, while Mexico invested 0.41%, Argentina 0.44%, and Chile 0.68% (see Table 1). This low investment in R&D has had dramatic consequences for a scientific community that is constantly struggling with unstable financial conditions, limited numbers of grants and low salaries, difficulties importing reagents and equipment, and strong competition for the few permanent positions available at public institutions. Due to the general scarcity of money for science in Latin America, governments and international agencies have strategically funded a few groups of excellence doing research in priority fields for these countries, forming continent-wide and country-wide collaborative networks.Table 1Expenditure on Science and Technology in Latin AmericaExpenditure on Science and Technology as % GDP in 2004ahttp://www.ricyt.edu.ar/indicadores/comparativos/05.xls.Share of World's Gross Expenditure on R&D (GERD) in 2002bhttp://www.uis.unesco.org/template/pdf/S&T/WdScienceRepTable1.pdf.Total Patent Applications Granted Worldwide in 2005chttp://www.ricyt.edu.ar/indicadores/comparativos/22.xls., dData for 2005 are not available for Brazil; 2004 data are shown.Argentina0.441,798Brazil0.917,047dData for 2005 are not available for Brazil; 2004 data are shown.Chile0.68637Mexico0.418,098Latin America and Caribbean2.621,126North America37.0Asia31.5Europe27.3United States2.7035.0143,806a http://www.ricyt.edu.ar/indicadores/comparativos/05.xls.b http://www.uis.unesco.org/template/pdf/S&T/WdScienceRepTable1.pdf.c http://www.ricyt.edu.ar/indicadores/comparativos/22.xls.d Data for 2005 are not available for Brazil; 2004 data are shown. Open table in a new tab Table 2Latin America's Share of Scientific PublicationsNumber of Science Papers Published in Science Citation Index (SCI)ahttp://www.ricyt.edu.ar/indicadores/comparativos/26.xls.20012002200320042005Rank Based on # SCI Papers 1999–2003bHermes-Loma et al., 2007, International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Life 59, 1–12.% World Share of SCI Papers 1999–2003bHermes-Loma et al., 2007, International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Life 59, 1–12.Argenina5,3095,5815,6405,4995,699290.56Brazil13,67715,85416,32417,78518,765171.45Chile2,3632,6552,9722,9913,262390.27Mexico5,6665,9956,6027,1487,541270.65Latin American and Caribbean30,33933,57735,29936,74538,729N/AN/AUnited States316,876331,538348,225363,562375,401131.48a http://www.ricyt.edu.ar/indicadores/comparativos/26.xls.b Hermes-Loma et al., 2007, International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Life 59, 1–12. Open table in a new tab A good example of a longstanding continent-wide collaboration is a network of scientists led by Osvaldo Podhajcer at the Institute Leloir in Argentina, Guillermo Mazzolini at Universidad Austral in Argentina, and Martín Montecino at Universidad de Concepción in Chile. Together they have received US $6 million, principally from the World Bank, to develop new approaches for gene targeting based on functional genomics platforms and new viral vectors that target gastrointestinal cancer, which is a particular problem in Chile, where the disease kills about 25 of every 100,000 persons. “Our collaboration is essential because our groups have complementing skills. Podhajcer's group has expertise in using viral particles as vectors for gene therapy, our group is expert in the analysis of promoters that are tissue-specific, and Mazzolini has great experience in pharmacological toxicity and clinical trials,” says Montecino. He adds that this is the first scientific project in the region involving efforts from two countries to solve a major health problem. Ten years after taking their first steps into genomics research, Brazil and Mexico have built a consolidated network of genome and bioinformatics research centers that have concentrated their efforts on sequencing expressed sequence tags and the genomes of organisms that are of economic or health importance for this region. For example, together with a group in Cuba led by Abel Gonzales Perez at the National Bioinformatics Center, Julio Collado-Vides at the Center for Genomic Sciences at Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) and Ana Tereza Ribeiro Vasconcelos, head of the Bioinformatics branch at the National Laboratory of Computer Sciences in Brazil, have developed Tractor, a database of computationally predicted transcription factor-binding sites in γ-proteobacterial genomes. The database now contains genome sequences of more than 30 bacterial species, which the group hopes will help in elucidating how bacteria respond to environmental changes at the level of transcriptional regulation. Collado-Vides' group is also collaborating with the US Department of Agriculture and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture in Colombia to sequence the genome of the tapeworm Taenia solium and of Phaseolus vulgaris, a food staple in Mexico. These projects provide valuable biological information that may help to improve agriculture and health, but the consequences of consolidated genome research networks in the region have other benefits. As Ana Tereza Ribeiro Vasconcelos points out, these networks enable Brazilian scientists “to be trained not only in molecular and sequencing techniques, but also in bioinformatics and computational analysis of biological information.” Likewise, in Mexico, these networks have prompted the launch of a new undergraduate program at UNAM devoted to training personnel in disciplines essential for genomic sciences such as mathematics, statistics, and computer science. “We expect the training to be extended into a PhD program that can be done either here in Mexico or abroad,” says Collado-Vides. Meanwhile, in Brazil, a country-wide network of research centers enabled sequencing of the genome of the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa, which causes a disease of citrus crops that has severe economic ramifications given that Brazil produces 30% of the world's citrus crop. Sequencing of other economically and medically important genomes such as those of sugar cane and the parasite Schistosoma mansoni, has also been completed. The next organism to have its genome sequenced is Anopheles darlingi, which is the vector that transmits malaria in South America. As with most developing regions, brain drain remains a problem. According to a 2007 OECD report, almost 8% of the population living in OECD countries are university-educated people from either South or Central America (http://www.oecd.org/country). Nevertheless, as the opportunities for scientists start to improve across the region, going back home may not be as hard as it sounds. After spending 2 years as a postdoc at the Center of Drug Evaluation and Research of the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in Rockville, Maryland, Fabio Klamt now has his own research group at Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil. The secret he reveals is “when abroad, do not lose ties with your institution in Brazil.” Now that he is back home, Klamt also emphasizes that “I want to keep the doors open and not miss new opportunities for collaborating with my previous lab in the US.” Klamt remains confident that “returning home is worthwhile.” The problem of brain drain is particularly aggravated in Mexico, perhaps due to its proximity to the United States. Researchers at Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México estimate that of the 2650 graduate students currently abroad and supported by Mexican fellowships, only 150 will return. To address this imbalance, CONACYT has instigated a program to repatriate researchers and supports another program to keep young scientists in Mexico. From 2001 to 2005, the program has resulted in 845 scientists returning to Mexico. For well-established scientists, however, returning home can be a gratifying experience and can also enable research that would not be possible elsewhere. Take Gerardo Jimenez-Sanchez, for example, who returned to Mexico from the United States after spending several years in David Valle's lab at the Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions. He is now director of the National Institute of Genomic Medicine (INMEGEN) in Mexico City. The principal goal of the institute is to assemble a genetic map of the Mexican population to discover genetic variants (SNPs) associated with diabetes, obesity, cancer, and heart disease. As Jimenez-Sanchez points out, “modern Mexicans are the result of a mix of more than 65 native Indian groups with Spaniards, leading to a genetic makeup that is different from all other populations.” Initial results from the first genetic map of a Latin American population that analyzed the genomes of 1600 individuals from 11 different states in Mexico indicate that Mexicans have patterns of functional SNPs with different frequencies than those observed in other populations. Jimenez-Sanchez anticipates that “we expect to see dramatic effects when applying pharmacogenomics to the Mexican population.” The genetic map has also attracted the interest of food companies seeking to learn how gene variants affect the way that food is metabolized and the consequences for health. The Swiss company, Nestle, recently set up a US $0.5 million grant to support research and personnel training in nutrigenomics at INMEGEN. Another key problem for scientists in Latin America is importing reagents and equipment. Despite progress seen in specific areas of research, small manufacturers in the region do not have the capacity to produce and deliver reagents and most state-of-the art equipment. Consequently, equipment and consumables must be imported from abroad, thus increasing the costs of such items. Additionally, customs procedures related to transporting and storage of items that need special handling, such as radioactive isotopes, temperature-sensitive molecules, and transgenic and knockout animals, are a logistical nightmare. Not to mention the time it takes to receive imported goods, which can be as long as 1 year for sophisticated equipment or a month for primers that are usually delivered overnight in developed countries. Even worse, the higher prices of imported items are due principally to import duties and customs fees that end up being paid with public funds as most scientific research in Latin America is government funded. A recent survey conducted in Brazil by the Neuroscience and Behavioral Society estimated that, on average, 67% of the final price paid for items bought abroad is spent on importing them. Says Brazilian neuroscientist Roesler in response to the recent announcement from Lula's government of the windfall for Brazilian science, “more money and better funding is always welcome, but if I had to change one thing to improve science in Brazil that would be the bureaucracy associated with importing research goods.” It turns out that Lula is determined to address this problem, stating during his announcement “…so many times a material that in Europe or in the United States takes a week to be delivered, here it would take anywhere from six months to one year…as though it were a car or airplane. There was no sense of priority.” Despite the many challenges ahead, the future for science in Latin America is looking brighter as evidenced by Lula's tongue-in-cheek comment to Science Minister Sergio Rezende after the announcement of Brazil's new science package, “I hope you do not show up in my office asking for money until 2010.” But it will be up to the scientists to make the most of these promising new developments. As Lula points out, “The money is available, now make it happen.”