Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

Voluntarism, salvation, and rescue: British juvenile migration to Australia and Canada, 1890–1939

2004; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 32; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/0308630410001700417

1743-9329

Michèle Langfield,

Canadian Identity and History

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes Shurlee Swain examines the notion and historiography of 'rescue' in this context in 'Child Rescue: The Emigration of an Idea', in Jon Lawrence and Pat Starkey (eds.), Child Welfare and Social Action in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: International Perspectives (Liverpool, 2001), 102–08. I have argued similarly elsewhere in relation to female migrants. See Michele Langfield, '"A Chance to Bloom": Female Migration and Salvationists in Australia and Canada, 1890s to 1939', Australian Feminist Studies, 17, 39 (2002), 287–303. Most immigrants to Australia in this period went to New South Wales and Victoria, hence the greater attention given to these two states. 'Juvenile' here refers to minors who travelled independently of family and for whom special arrangements were made. The distinction between child, youth and juvenile migration is addressed in Senate Community Affairs References Committee (SCARC), Lost Innocents: Righting the Record, Report on Child Migration, Aug. 2001 (Canberra, 2001), 11–13. Barry Coldrey, Good British Stock: Child and Youth Migration to Australia, Research Guide No.11, National Archives of Australia (NAA) (Canberra, 1999), 17; Stephen Constantine, 'Empire Migration and Social Reform 1880-1950', in Colin G. Pooley and Ian D. White (eds.), Migrants, Emigrants and Immigrants: A Social History of Migration (London and New York, 1991), 68, 71; Geoffrey Sherington, 'Child Migration', in James Jupp (ed.), The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, its People and their Origins, 2nd edn. (Cambridge and Melbourne, 2001), 60; Kathleen Paul, 'Changing Childhoods: Child Emigration since 1945', in Lawrence and Starkey (eds.), Child Welfare and Social Action, 122–23. Terms such as 'non-government', 'non-government organisation' (NGO), 'private' and 'third sector', may be inapplicable for this period. Moreover, the distinction between government and non-government is blurred owing to government subsidies. See Sean Brawley, The White Peril: Foreign Relations and Asian Immigration to Australasia and North America 1919–78 (Sydney, 1995); and Ninette Kelley and Michael Trebilcock, The Making of the Mosaic: A History of Canadian Immigration Policy (Toronto, 1998), chs.4–6. Myra Rutherdale, 'Scrutinizing the "Submerged Tenth": Salvation Army Immigrants and their Reception in Canada', paper presented at the British World II Conference, Calgary, Canada, July 2003, 2–3, 9, 16. John A. Schultz, 'Leaven for the Lump', in Stephen Constantine (ed.), Emigrants and Empire: British Settlement in the Dominions Between the Wars (Manchester and New York, 1990), 150, 162; and see Michele Langfield, '"Pommygrants and Immigrants": De-Centring Debates over Empire Settlement in Australia and Canada', paper presented at the British World II Conference, Calgary, Canada, July 2003. Freda Hawkins, Critical Years in Immigration: Australia and Canada Compared (St Lucia, 1989), 27. See Appendix and also Michele Langfield, More People Imperative: Immigration to Australia, 1901–39, Research Guide No.7, NAA (Canberra, 1999). For example, Geoffrey Sherington, The Dreadnought Boys, privately printed; Geoffrey Sherington, 'British Youth and Empire Settlement: The Dreadnought Boys in New South Wales', Journal of the Royal Historical Society, 82, 1 (June 1996), 1–22; Geoffrey Sherington, '"A Better Class of Boy": The Big Brother Movement, Youth Migration and Citizenship of Empire', Australian Historical Studies, 33, 120 (Oct. 2002), 267–85; Geoffrey Sherington and Chris Jeffery, Fairbridge: Empire and Child Migration (Perth, 1999); B.M. Coldrey, The Scheme: The Christian Brothers and Children in Western Australia (Perth, 1993); Jan Gothard, 'Assisted Female Immigration 1860–1920', in Jupp (ed.), The Australian People, 2nd edn., 53–56; Jan Gothard, Blue China: Single Female Migration to Colonial Australia (Melbourne, 2001); Marjory Harper, Beyond the Broad Atlantic (Aberdeen, 1988); and Joy Parr, Labouring Children (London, 1980). See also Alan Gill, Orphans of the Empire (Sydney, 1997); and Lisa Chilton, 'A New Class of Women for the Colonies: The Imperial Colonist and the Construction of Empire', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, XXXI, 2 (May 2003), 36–56. Robert Sandall, The History of the Salvation Army, Volume 3 1883–1953, Social Reform and Welfare Work (London, 1955), 58; Constantine, 'Empire Migration and Social Reform 1880–1950', 68. From 1908 to 1914 the Army assisted 50,720 people to the Dominions at a cost of £328,939. Gill, Orphans of the Empire, 167. See the Salvation Army Migration Department, 'A Report of the Work in Australia', June 1928, 5, held at the Salvation Army Heritage Centre, 69 Bourke Street, Melbourne. Marjory Harper, 'Emigration and the Salvation Army, 1890–1930', Bulletin of the Scottish Institute of Missionary Studies, 3–4 (1985–87), 22–29; and Rutherdale, 'Scrutinizing the "Submerged Tenth"', 2. Pamela J. Walker, Pulling the Devil's Kingdom Down: The Salvation Army in Victorian Britain (London, 2001), covers the movement's foundations; see also Barbara Bolton, Booth's Drum: The Salvation Army in Australia, 1880–1980 (Sydney, 1980); R.G. Moyles, The Blood and Fire in Canada (Toronto, 1977); and Sandall, The History of the Salvation Army, Volumes 1–3 (London, 1955). Coldrey, Good British Stock, 134. In Australia the Army began in 1881, in Canada in 1882. Sandall, The History of the Salvation Army Volume 3, 154; John D. Waldron, Creed and Deed: Toward a Christian Theology of Social Services in the Salvation Army (Oakville, 1986), 45–58. William (General) Booth, In Darkest England and the Way Out (London, 1890, reprinted 1942, 1970). Harper, 'Emigration and the Salvation Army, 1890–1930', 23. Waldron, Creed and Deed, 78. Smart to Preston, 2 Nov. 1903, National Archives of Canada (NAC), Record Group (RG) 76, 'General Booth, Salvation Army Immigration Schemes (Report) 1–6, 1895–1908', C-4768, Vol.105, 17480, Pt.1. The War Cry (Southern Australia), 21 May 1904, 30 Sept. 1905. Harper, 'Emigration and the Salvation Army, 1890–1930', 23–24. Sandall, The History of the Salvation Army, Volume 3, 154–57; Harper, 'Emigration and the Salvation Army, 1890–1930', 25–27. Memorandum for Preston, 1903, NAC, RG 76, C-4768, Vol.105, 17480, Pt.1. Valerie Knowles, Strangers at Our Gates: Canadian Immigration and Immigration Policy, 1540–1990 (Toronto and Oxford, 1992), 68; Gill, Orphans of the Empire, 166. Booth's idea of 'salvation for both worlds' and his 'redemptive theology' are explained in Waldron, Creed and Deed, 60–74. F.K. Crowley, 'The British Contribution to the Australian Population, 1860–1919', University Studies in History and Economics, 11, 2 (July 1958), 74. Bolton, Booth's Drum, 228. Sydney Morning Herald (SMH), 12 May 1902; see also 29 March 1901. Argus (Melbourne), 15, 16 April 1904. Note also comments by E.A. Roberts (Adelaide) in Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates (CPD), House of Representatives (HR), 23 Nov. 1910, LIX, 6654. Argus, 15 April 1904. Ibid., 26 Aug. 1912. Rutherdale, 'Scrutinizing the "Submerged Tenth"', 13–14. Memorandum from W.D. Scott to Mitchell, 3 Aug. 1916, NAC, RG 76, C4768, Vol.105, File 17480, Pt.2, Salvation Army Reports, 1909-16 (also quoted in Langfield, 'A Chance to Bloom', 299). See Sherington, 'A Better Class of Boy', 268–69. Letter to Under-Secretary of State from Whitehall, 20 June 1904, Colonial Office Records (COR), Australian Joint Copying Project (AJCP), CO/418, Reel no.2168, Piece no.34, 1904, Vol.5. The High Commissioner for Australia, Sir George Reid, the editor of the Morning Post, and Sir H. Rider Haggard, one of the Commissioners for the Dominions Royal Commission during 1913, were others who shared this view. Argus, 20 Sept., 26 Nov. 1912, 23 May, 28 June 1913. See also Parr, Labouring Children, 144–45. Argus, 3, 4 May 1911. The Church Army was not generally known outside England, except in Canada to which it had sent many immigrants in the pre-war years. The first group sent to Australia of boys aged 16 to 21 went to Western Australia. The Army paid £5 towards each fare. Argus, 18 April 1910; SMH, 20 Oct. 1910. Argus, 27 May 1910. Ibid., 2 April, 25 and 31 May 1910. Knowles, Strangers at Our Gates, 78–81, 84; Parr, Labouring Children, 148–49. England was always referred to as 'Home' in official documents and in the press in these years. The effect of increased European immigration was felt in both Australia and Canada. See Michele Langfield, '"White Aliens": The Control of European Immigration to Australia, 1920–1930', Journal of Intercultural Studies, 12, 11 (Dec. 1991), 1–14; Michael Roe, 'Interwar British Immigration to Australia', in Jupp (ed.), The Australian People, 2nd edn., 57; Michael Roe, '"We can die just as easy out here": Australia and British Migration, 1916–1939', in Constantine (ed.), Emigrants and Empire, 99; Donald H. Avery, Reluctant Host: Canada's Response to Immigration Workers, 1896–1994 (Toronto, 1995), 83, 93; Marilyn Barber, Immigrant Domestic Servants in Canada (Ottawa, 1991), 16; Reg Whitaker, Canadian Immigration Policy since Confederation (Ottawa, 1991), 12; Kelley and Trebilcock, The Making of the Mosaic, 186; and Knowles, Strangers within our Gates, 98, 107. Argus, 28 May, 1, 3 June 1910; and see Constantine, 'Empire Migration and Social Reform 1880–1950', 71. Argus, 2 June 1910. Michael Roe, Australia, Britain and Migration, 1915–1940: A Study of Desperate Hopes (Melbourne, 1995), 249. Parr, Labouring Children, 142. See Geoffrey Sherington, Australia's Immigrants 1788–1978 (Sydney, 1980), 94; idem, The Dreadnought Boys; and, for a later period, Roe, Australia, Britain and Migration, 221–28. Victorian Parliamentary Debates (VPD), Legislative Assembly (LA), 10 Aug. 1910, Vol.124, 560–81; Argus, 10, 11 Feb., 14 March, 2 April 1910. The Board settled 136 persons in Australia in 1910. Argus, 24 May 1910; 18 May 1911. The British Immigration League often worked with the Central Unemployed Body for London, constituted under the British Unemployed Workmen Act of 1905. West Australian, 26 Dec. 1910; SMH, 8 Nov. 1910; Argus, 23 Feb., 1 April, 15 June 1911, 29 Jan., 2, 6 Feb. 1912. See John Lack and Jacqueline Templeton (eds.), Sources of Australian Immigration History, Volume 1: 1901–1945 (Melbourne, 1988), 16–20. The first group of 13 Boy Scout immigrants for Victoria, aged 14–18, left England in March 1913. Argus, 3 March, 11 and 29 April, 22 and 23 May 1913; SMH, 5 Nov. 1910; Alex G. Scholes, Education for Empire Settlement A Study of Juvenile Migration (London, 1932), 61–67. For Fairbridge's 'Vision Splendid', see Patrick A. Dunae, 'Gender, Generations and Social Class: The Fairbridge Society and British Child Migration to Canada, 1930–1960', in Lawrence and Starkey (eds.), Child Welfare and Social Action, 83–85. Kingsley Fairbridge described them as 'waifs in a wide world'. Ruby Fairbridge, Fairbridge Farm Pinjarra (Perth, 1948), 70. SMH, 21 Nov. 1912; Argus, 26 Nov. 1912; Constantine, 'Empire Migration and Social Reform 1880-1950', 69; Sherington and Jeffery, Fairbridge: Empire and Child Migration. See Geoffrey Sherington, 'Fairbridge Child Migrants', in Lawrence and Starkey (eds.), Child Welfare and Social Action, 54; Sherington, 'Child Migration', 61; Coldrey, Good British Stock, 68–72; and Stephen Constantine, 'The British Government, Child Welfare, and Child Migration to Australia after 1945', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth and Commonwealth History, 30, 1 (Jan. 2002), 101. 'Dreadnought Boys, Migration D', NAA, A659, 43/1/1892; SMH, 25 May 1914. Gwenda Davey, A Strange Place to Go: Child Migrants to Australia: A Resource Book (Canberra, 1986), 9; SCARC, Lost Innocents, 21. Argus, 31 Jan., 25 May, 10 Nov. 1910; Scholes, Education for Empire Settlement, 65. An exception was the scheme by the Public Schools Emigration League, which sent out boys of good school records and character to Western Australia. West Australian, 26 Dec. 1910. For example, see Sherington, 'Fairbridge Child Migrants', 69–70. VPD, LA, 10 Aug. 1910, Vol.124, 560-81; Argus, 18, 29 June 1910. Argus, 20 March 1913. Knowles, Strangers at Our Gates, 68; and see Parr, Labouring Children, 148. Boys in 1913–14 were paid at seven shillings and sixpence weekly for the first year when experienced farm labourers could be earning up to 25 shillings. Argus, 4 June 1914. Ibid., 22 Jan. 1913. Ibid., 1, 24 April, 28 Aug. 1913, and 18 July 1913, quoting an article in the Spectator on juvenile emigration. Eric Richards (ed.), The Flinders History of South Australia (Adelaide, 1986), 133; Sherington, Australia's Immigrants, 94. South Australian Labor Senator McGregor claimed that the boys were doing men's work for a boy's wage. Senator Barnes stated that, although they were brought out to relieve the shortage of farm labour, owing to their age, they could not vote against the party responsible if they found themselves out of work or if the conditions had been misrepresented. CPD, Senate, 7 May 1914, Vol.LXXIII, 680, and 3 June 1914, Vol.LXXIV, 1710–11. Adelaide Chamber of Commerce, Minutes of Meetings, 31 Oct. 1913, 67–68; 24 April 1914, 86, Australian National University, Archives of Business and Labour, E199/9/12. Argus, 4 April, 17 June 1914. SCARC, Lost Innocents: Righting the Record, 47; and Coldrey, Good British Stock, 87–89. Davey, A Strange Place to Go, 6; 'Catholic Immigration Society New South Wales', NAA, A1/1, 32/7362; 'Catholic Immigration Queensland', NAA, A1, 1932/7421. Rutherdale, 'Scrutinizing the "Submerged Tenth"', 21–24, 29. Recommendations of the Dominions Royal Commission, NAA, A2, 1917/7115; Parr, Labouring Children, 143–44. See Report of the Oversea Settlement Committee of 1921 (cmd.1580), cited in New South Wales Archives Office (NSWAO), 7/5941. The Committee also recommended the settlement of Poor Law and other suitable younger children in the Dominions. Letter from G.F. Plant to the Australian High Commissioner, London, 2 Jan. 1923, NAA, CP78/22, 1925/64. Boy Scout immigration for older boys was authorised throughout the 1920s by Alfred D. Pickford, representative of Baden-Powell and Commissioner for Overseas Scouts Emigration. Pickford to Colonial Office, 28 Oct. 1922, COR, AJCP, CO/418, Reel 4321, Piece no.225; Argus, 10 Jan., 15 Nov. 1922. Letter from Governor Newdegate to Colonial Office, 19 Sept. 1922, COR, AJCP, CO/418, Reel no.4322, Piece no.226; Argus, 19 Dec. 1921, p.5. The Church Army also sent schoolboys to Australia. When the Church of England Immigration Committee for Victoria was formed in 1923, the Church Army in London undertook selection. Prime Minister's Department, 'Immigration Encouragement. Miscellaneous Policies. Anglican Church Scheme', NAA, A458, J154/15. Copy of Despatch No.38 from Sec. of State for the Colonies to Premier NSW, 22 July 1922 (point 7, p.1), NSWAO, 7/5941. 'Immigration Encouragement. New Settlers' League. Financial. 1923–30', NAA, A458, G154/18, Pt.11; Argus, 22 June, 5, 19 Oct. 1921; Roe, '"We can die just as easy out here"', 106. 'Report by T.H. Garrett on activities of voluntary organisations in migration in Australia. 'Fairbridge Farm, Salvation Army, Returned Soldiers League and Welfare Societies in the Various States', NAA, P211/2, Bundle 98/NN. Letter to Prime Minister's Department from Gullett, 8 Nov. 1921, 'Immigration Encouragement. Pound for Pound Subsidy to Approved Private Immigration Schemes', NAA, A457, M400/2. Their average age was 16. Barnardo girls followed in 1923. SCARC, Lost Innocents, 22. Memorandum to Gullett from Hughes, 8 Nov. 1921, NAA, A457, M400/2. Stephen Constantine, 'Introduction: Empire Migration and Imperial Harmony', in Constantine (ed.), Emigrants and Empire, 9–10; and Constantine, 'The British Government, Child Welfare, and Child Migration', 100. Roe, '"We can die just as easy out here"', 103. Sandall, The History of the Salvation Army, Volume 3, 157. Rutherdale, 'Scrutinizing the "Submerged Tenth"', 24–25. NAA, 'Immigration Encouragement. Salvation Army – Financial', A458, J154/4; NAC, RG 76, Reel C-4768, Vol.105, File 17480, Salvation Army Records, Pt.2; 'Voluntary Organisations Report by Mr T.H. Garrett', NAA, P211/2, Bundle 98/NN. Schultz, 'Leaven for the Lump', in Constantine (ed.), Emigrants and Empire, 163. Boys of Britain pamphlet, issued by the Salvation Army Emigration-Colonization and Shipping Office, London, undated, held at the Salvation Army Heritage Centre, 69 Bourke Street, Melbourne. See The War Cry (Southern Australia), 6 Jan. 1923; Gill, Orphans of the Empire, 167. 'Voluntary Organisations Report by Mr T.H. Garrett', NAA, P211/2, Bundle 98/NN; Australia. Development and Migration Commission. Assisted Migration, 5; James Jupp, in John Hardy (ed.), Stories of Australian Migration (Sydney, 1988), 21–22. Coldrey, Good British Stock, 134. Harper, 'Emigration and the Salvation Army, 1890–1930', 27. SCARC, Lost Innocents, 14–15. A prominent campaigner against juvenile migration, Charlote Whitton, especially attacked Barnardo's. See Dunae, 'Gender, Generations and Social Class', 86–87. The ban became permanent in 1928. 'Report for the Sec. of State for the Colonies, President of the Oversea Settlement Committee, from the Delegation appointed to obtain information regarding the system of child migration and settlement to Canada', 22 Nov. 1924 (the Bondfield Report), NAC, RG 76, C7396; and see Knowles, Strangers at our Gates, 70, 106; Parr, Labouring Children, 151–53; Constantine, 'Introduction: Empire Migration and Imperial Harmony', 9; and Constantine, 'The British Government, Child Welfare, and Child Migration', 101. Schultz, 'Leaven for the Lump', in Constantine (ed.), Emigrants and Empire, 165–67. Table supplied by Overseas Settlement Department, Dominions Office, cited in Scholes, Education for Empire Settlement, 83, and see also ch.10, 138–52. 'Salvation Army Boys' Scheme', NAA, CP78/22, 1925/64, Pt.II; Argus, 15 Aug., 27 Oct. 1921, 5 Jan., 13 March, 12 and 17 April 1922. See Langfield, 'A Chance to Bloom', 293–97. 'Development and Migration Commission'; NAA CP78/22, 1926/614; Argus, 11, 12, 13 Aug. 1926. Sherington, in James Jupp (ed.), The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, its People and their Origins, 1st edn. (Sydney, 1988), 94; Sherington, Australia's Immigrants, 107. Argus, 20 Feb. 1923; John Ross, Child Migration to Australia, Report of a Fact-Finding Mission, cmd.9832, CRO, London, Aug. 1956, 3 (also available as Political Science Pamphlets, 161, 9, State Library of Victoria). 'Oversea Settlement Scheme. Agreement between British government and YMCA', NAA, A458/1, E154/12. SMH, 27 March 1926. 'Immigration Encouragement. YMCA. Financial', A461/8, D349/1/1; Roe, Australia, Britain and Migration, 205–06. See Coldrey, Good British Stock, 95. See Geoff Browne, in B.E. Kennedy, Neal Blewett and D. Mossenson, in Bede Nairn and Geoffrey Serle (eds.), Australian Dictionary of Biography (ADB), Volume 10 (Melbourne, 1986), 116–17. Sherington, 'A Better Class of Boy', 271. In 1927, 261 Little Brothers came to Victoria and 48 to South Australia; by the end of 1928, 1,516 had arrived, 869 settling in Victoria, 522 in New South Wales and 125 in South Australia. Sherington, Australia's Immigrants, 107; Scholes, Education for Empire Settlement, 145. CPD, HR, 2 July 1924, Vol.107, 1759-60; Letter from British Government Representative to Minister of Agriculture, 26 May 1926, NAA, CP78/22, 1925/64. Sherington, 'A Better Class of Boy', 275. 'Dreadnought Boys, Migration D', NAA, A659, 43/1/1892. Australia. Development and Migration Commission. Assisted Migration, 4–5; B.M. Coldrey, Child Migration, the Australian Government and the Catholic Church, 1926–1956 (Melbourne, 1992); B.M. Coldrey, The Scheme: The Christian Brothers and Children in Western Australia (Perth, 1993). Letter, 16 Jan. 1925, CO 721/117, cited in Roe, Australia, Britain and Migration, 205. Rutherdale, 'Scrutinizing the "Submerged Tenth"', 25–28. Prime Minister's Department, 'Immigration. Salvation Army', NAA, A461/8, F349/1/1. Schultz, 'Leaven for the Lump', in Constantine (ed.), Emigrants and Empire, 157. Memorandum to Egan, 23 Dec. 1926, NAC, RG 76, C-4768, Vol.105, Pt.3. Roe, Australia, Britain and Migration, 205. Sandall, The History of the Salvation Army, Volume 3, 158. The Army chartered the liner SS Vedic four times for such trips in 1925, 1927, 1928 and 1929. See Gill, Orphans of the Empire, 167; and The War Cry (Southern Australia), 8 Dec. 1928. Roe, Australia, Britain and Migration, 205. Memorandum, 11 Feb. 1927, NAC, RG 76, Vol.105, File 17480, Pt.4, Salvation Army (24-32), 1926-1940; Roe, Australia, Britain and Migration, 205. By 1926 Ontario and New Brunswick also gave grants to the Salvation Army. Rutherdale, 'Scrutinizing the "Submerged Tenth"', 26. 'Voluntary organisations Report by Mr T.H. Garrett', NAA, MP211/2, Bundle 98/NN; 'Immigration. New Settlers' League, Victorian Branch', NAA, A458/1, C154/18; 'Immigration Encouragement. New Settlers' League. Financial. Pt.2', A458, G154/18. Daily Dispatch (London), 18 May 1929; Evening News (Edinburgh), 20 May 1929, cited in correspondence between the Under-Secretary, Department of Labour and Industry, Sydney and Secretary, Development and Migration Commission, Melbourne, 13 June 1929, 10 July 1929, NAA, A659, 43/1/1892. See Stephen Constantine, 'British Emigration to the Empire-Commonwealth since 1880: From Overseas Settlement to Diaspora?', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, XXXI, 2 (May 2003), 25. Memoranda to the Secretary, Development and Migration Commission, 16 Jan. 1929, 11 April 1929, NAA, A659, 43/1/1892. F.W. Eggleston et al., The Peopling of Australia, second series (Melbourne 1933), 63; Anon., 'Development and Migration Commission', Australian Quarterly, 1, 4 (Dec. 1929), 122; 'Immigration – Commonwealth Policy, Pt.I (1933–35)', NAA, A461, A349/1/2, Pt.I. Official Year Book of the Commonwealth of Australia, No.30 (1901–36), 366. Surprisingly, during the depression another Fairbridge Farm School was opened on Vancouver Island, Canada, in 1934. See Dunae, 'Gender, Generations and Social Class', 83, 86–89. Official Year Book of the Commonwealth of Australia, No.23, 682 and No.24, 676–777; Knowles, Strangers at Our Gates, 108. See Michele Langfield, '"To Restore British Migration": The Population Debates of the 1930s in Australia', Australian Journal of Politics and History, 41, 3 (Dec. 1995), 409; Roe, '"We can die just as easy out here"', 112. 'Policy of the United Kingdom Government', NAA, A571, 30/1584. See also Sherington, Australia's Immigrants, 113-14; and Sherington, in Jupp, The Australian People, 1st edn., 96. Official Year Book of the Commonwealth of Australia, No.33 (1901-40), 571; 'Immigration', NAA, A461, A349/1/2, Pt.III. 'To Restore British Migration, Commonwealth Government's Proposals', Statement by Prime Minister, 8 March 1938, NAA, A981, Migration 52. Prime Minister's Statement, 8 March 1938, NAA, A981, Migration 52; SMH, 8 March 1938. Memorandum on Child Migration to Western Australia, 2 Feb. 1938, 'Catholic Emigration Association, London, Scheme to Emigrate Children to Catholic Institutions in Western Australia, 1937–44', NAA, A659, 45/1/499; Argus, 22 March 1935, 10 April 1937; SMH, 24 May 1935. Sherington and Jeffery, Fairbridge: Empire and Child Migration, 166–71. Thereafter Britain contributed five shillings sterling per week per child up to 14 years of age and the Australian government three shillings or three and sixpence per week per child. For children from Eire passage assistance was given from an English port. 'Checks to Alien Concentration and Assistance to British Migrants, Commonwealth Publicity Officer, 13 April 1938', NAA, A981, Migration 52. SMH, 12 Jan., 1 April, 2 May, 25 June 1938; Glen Palmer, Reluctant Refuge: Unaccompanied Refugee and Evacuee Children in Australia, 1933–1945 (Sydney, 1997). 'Big Brother Movement, Proposed Financial Arrangements, New South Wales, 1937–40', NAA, A659, 39/1/8431. The Big Brother Movement in Victoria amalgamated with the Boy Scouts in 1939. Sherington, 'A Better Class of Boy', 284. NAA, A659, 43/1/1892; 'Records of the Dreadnought Trust, 1909–39', Manuscripts in the Mitchell Library, Sydney, A4987–95; and see Constantine, 'Empire Migration and Social Reform 1880–1950', 76–77. Support for this policy came from powerful community organisations: Returned Soldiers and Sailors Imperial League of Australia, Australian Natives Association and British Empire Union. Letter to Prime Minister J.A. Lyons from General Secretary, British Empire Union, 29 Dec. 1938, NAA, A981, Migration 52; Telegraph (Sydney), 20 Aug. 1937. Thomas E. Sedgwick, Lads for the Empire (Westminster, 1914); Davey, A Strange Place to Go, 9; Parr, Labouring Children, 143; Constantine, 'Introduction: Empire Migration and Imperial Harmony', in Constantine (ed.), Emigrants and Empire, 9; Sherington, 'A Better Class of Boy', 269, 278; and Paul, 'Changing Childhoods', 123. The Big Brother Movement, New Australian, 2, 1-2 (1929); Davey, A Strange Place to Go, 9. See Paul, 'Changing Childhoods', 122. Knowles, Strangers at Our Gates, 68. In 1904–05, only five per cent were Salvationists. Booth to Oliver, Minister of the Interior, Ottawa, 23 Nov. 1905, NAC, RG 76, C-4768, Reel 105, 17480. Paul shows how such racist and eugenic agendas continued in the post-1945 period in 'Changing Childhoods', 137–140; and see Sherington, 'Fairbridge Child Migrants', 68. Roe makes a similar point in '"We can die just as easy out here"', 113. Davey, A Strange Place to Go, 8; Lawrence and Starkey (eds.), Child Welfare and Social Action, Introduction, 3. John Moss, Child Migration to Australia (London, 1953), State Library of Victoria; Ross, Child Migration to Australia, Report of a Fact-Finding Mission, 8–10; Davey, A Strange Place to Go, 9; Sherington, 'Child Migration', 61; Paul, 'Changing Childhoods', 130-34. See Lydia D. Murdoch, 'From Barrack Schools to Family Cottages: Creating Domestic Space for Late Victorian Poor Children', in Lawrence and Starkey (eds.), Child Welfare and Social Action, 147–73. SCARC, Lost Innocents, 39–41; Davey, A Strange Place to Go, 11; and Paul, 'Changing Childhoods', 131. Sherington and Jeffery, Fairbridge: Empire and Child Migration, 240–41; and see Constantine, 'The British Government, Child Welfare, and Child Migration', 105–23, for an evaluation of the reviews conducted in Britain and Australia around this time. Stephen Constantine, 'History, Telling the Truth, and Giving Evidence: Child Migration to Australia after 1945', Paper delivered at the British World II Conference, Calgary, Canada, July 2003. Lost Children of the Empire, ITV, 9 May 1989; Philip Bean and Joy Melville, Lost Children of the Empire (London, 1989); The Leaving of Liverpool, ABC 1992, BBC 1993, cited in Constantine, 'The British Government, Child Welfare, and Child Migration', 99; SCARC, Lost Innocents; Sherington, 'Child Migration', 61; Sherington, in 'Fairbridge Child Migrants', 53–81, presents a more balanced view. The Ugly Men's Association was a unique body of social workers in Western Australia, which formed a branch of the New Settlers' League in late 1921 to welcome immigrants. Daily Mail (Sydney) 16 Feb. 1922.