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In Support of a Non-member State: The Organisation of Islamic Conference and the War in Bosnia, 1992–1995

2013; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 33; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/13602004.2013.863074

1469-9591

Hamza Karčić,

Balkan and Eastern European Studies

AbstractThe war in Bosnia from 1992 to 1995 generated an intensive diplomatic effort on the part of the Organisation of Islamic Conference (OIC) to protect the country and its population. The aim of this article is to analyze how the OIC sought to support a non-OIC member state, to study diplomatic initiatives undertaken and to assess their results. An analysis of war-time Bosnian media reports on OIC initiatives will provide an insight into how the OIC's activities were perceived and the expectations that they generated. Relying on OIC conference communiques, contemporary media reports and memoirs, the article will provide a narrative of the OIC's role during the three-and-a-half-year war in Bosnia. Notes† On 28 June 2011 during the 38th Council of Foreign Ministers meeting (CFM) in Astana, Kazakhstan the OIC changed its name from “Organisation of the Islamic Conference” to its current name the “Organisation of the Islamic Cooperation”. The OIC also changed its logo at this time.1. Ekmeleddin Ihsanoglu, The Islamic World in the New Century: The Organisation of the Islamic Conference, London: Hurst, 2010, p. 118. He is the current Secretary-General of the OIC.2. Noel Malcolm, Bosnia: A Short History (New, Updated Edition), New York: New York University Press, 1996, pp. 213–225.3. The Twentieth Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers (Session of Just and Durable Peace Through Dialogue and Cooperation Among Member States and Respect for International Legitimacy), Istanbul, Republic of Turkey, 24–28 Muharram 1412H, 4–8 August 1991.4. “Jubilarna konferencija islamskih zemalja”, Preporod (Renaissance), Godina XX II, broj 16/503, 15. avgust, 1991, p. 24.5. reis-ul-ulema—head of the Islamic Community. Jakub Selimovski was head of the Islamic Community of Yugoslavia until 1993. Dr Mustafa Ceric became reis-ul-ulema of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1993.6. “Memorandum o IZ Jugoslavije”, Preporod (Renaissance), broj 16/503, 15. avgust, 1991, p. 2.7. Malcolm, Bosnia: A Short History, op. cit., pp. 230–231.8. I. Begović, “Islamske zemlje pomažu Bosnu i Hercegovinu (?)”, Preporod (Renaissance), broj 8/519, 15. april, 1992, p. 3.9. “Fighting Rages in Bosnia”, New York Times, 20 May 1992.In early August 1992, the Gulf states also urged their chambers of commerce to sever all ties to the rump Yugoslavia. See “Sramna agresija srpske vojske”, Oslobođenje (Liberation), 7.avgust, 1992. In an interview given to Ljiljan in 1993, the foreign minister of Pakistan said that he believed his country was the first to expel the Yugoslav ambassador. See Mustafa Cerić i Faris Nanić, “Zločinci pod zastavom pravoslavlja”, Ljiljan (The Lily), broj 9, godina I, 21. decembar/prosinac, 1992, pp. 5–6.10. Final Communique of the Fifth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers, Istanbul, Republic of Turkey, 16–17 Zul Hijjah 1412 H (17–18 June 1992), p. 4.11. Resolution No.1/5-EX on the Situation in Bosnia-Herzegovina, p. 4.12. “Reisu-l-ulema u Turskoj”, Preporod (Renaissance), broj 11/522, 1. Juli, 1992, p. 2.13. Malcolm, Bosnia: A Short History, op. cit., p. 246.14. Statement of His Excellency Dr Hamid Algabid, Secretary-General of the Organization of the Islamic Conference at the Conference on Yugoslavia, The London Conference, General Debate: 26 August 1992, University of Liverpool Library, Special Collections and Archives, David Owen Papers, The Balkan Odyssey Digital Archive, Reference: BODA/2/1/2/3.15. Michael Richardson, “Religious Friction Imperils Session of Nonaligned Group”, New York Times, 31 August 1992.16. Philip Shenon, “Non-aligned Movement Decides It Is Still Relevant”, New York Times, 7 September 1992.17. Michael Richardson, “Nonaligned Nations Seek UN Intervention on Serbs”, New York Times, 7 September 1992.18. Paul Lewis, “U.N. Assembly Expels Belgrade Over Its Role in Bosnia Fighting”, New York Times, 23 September 1992.19. Malcolm, Bosnia: A Short History, op. cit., p. 247.20. “Dva pravca diplomatske ofanzive [Two Avenues of Diplomatic Offensives]”, Oslobođenje (Liberation), 3. novembra, 1992, p. 1.21. R. Živković, “Pomoć neće izostati [Help Will Not Be Unrealized]”, Oslobođenje (Liberation), 17.novembra 1992, p. 1.22. Ajet Arifi i Enver Ibrahimkadić, “Ucijenit ćemo svijet naftom [We Will Blackmail the World with Oil]”, Ljiljan (The Lily), 24.novembar/studeni 1992, pp. 5–6.23. Final Communique of the Sixth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers, Jeddah (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia), 7–8 Jamadiul Thani 1413H, 1–2 December 1992, pp. 3–4.24. Govor predsjednika Predsjedništva Republike BiH Alije Izetbegovića, “Vi nemate pravo na ravnodušnost” [Speech of the Bosnian President Alija Izetbegović—“You Have No Right to Indifference”], Ljiljan (The Lily), 7.decembar/prosinac 1992, broj 8, godina I, p. 12.25. Alija Izetbegović, Sjećanja: Autobiografski zapis [Reminiscences: An Autobiographical Note], TKD Šahinpašić, Sarajevo, 2001, pp. 138–140.26. Ibid., pp. 6–9.27. Resolution No.1/6-EX on The Situation in Bosnia-Herzegovina, p. 8.28. Meeting with the OIC, Jeddah 1–2 December 1992, University of Liverpool Library, Special Collections and Archives, David Owen Papers, The Balkan Odyssey Digital Archive, Reference: BODA/3/4/11.29. Fahira Fejzić i Faris Nanić, “Bosna je veća od same sebe [Bosnia Is Greater than Itself]”, Ljiljan (The Lily), 7.decembar/prosinac 1992, broj 8, godina I, pp. 5–6.30. “Agresija se mora zaustaviti [Aggression Must Be Stopped]”, Oslobođenje (Liberation), 4.decembra/prosinca 1992, p. 1.31. I.Kasumović, “Muslimani BiH u paklenom trouglu [Muslims of Bosnia in Hellish Triangle]”, Preporod (Renaissance), Godina XXIII 22/24 533/535, 15. December 1992, p. 1.32. Statement of His Excellency Dr Hamid Algabid, Secretary-General of the Organization of the Islamic Conference to the Ministerial Meeting of the Steering Committee of the International Conference on the Former Yugoslavia, Geneva, 16 December 1992, University of Liverpool Library, Special Collections and Archives, David Owen Papers, The Balkan Odyssey Digital Archive, Reference: BODA/2/2/1/3.33. “Zadovoljavajuća politička podrška [Satisfactory Political Support]”, Oslobođenje (Liberation), 6.januar/siječanj 1993, p. 6.34. “Očekujemo još jaču podršku [We Expect Even Greater Support]”, Oslobođenje (Liberation), 12.januara/siječnja 1993, p. 1.35. “Goruća pitanja islamskog svijeta [Imminent Questions of the Islamic World]”, Preporod (Renaissance), broj ¾ 538/539, februar 1993, p. 2.36. Ivica Mišić, “Neprihvatljivi dokumenti [Unacceptable Documents]”, Oslobođenje (Liberation), 10.februara/veljače 1993, p. 8.37. “Muslims Urge UN to Reject Bosnia Plan”, Reuters, 4 February 1993.38. “Zašto šutite tzv. islamske zemlje?! [Why Are You Quiet the So-Called Islamic Countries]”, Ljiljan (The Lily), 15.mart/ožujak 1993, p. 4.39. Faris Nanić, “Epohalna stranputica [Epochal Digression]”, Ljiljan (The Lily), 10.maj/svibanj 1993, p. 19.40. Final Communique, 21st Conference of the Foreign Ministers, Karachi, Islamic Republic of Pakistan, 4–8 Zul Qa'dah 1413H, 25–29 April 1993.41. Malcolm, Bosnia: A Short History, op. cit., pp. 247–248.42. Ibid., pp. 249–251.43. Paul Lewis, “Hostility to Allies' New Plan for Bosnia Increases at U.N.”, New York Times, 25 May 1993.44. Ivica Mišić, “Silom sprovesti rezolucije UN [To Implement UN Resolutions with Force]”, Oslobođenje (Liberation), 26.maja/svibnja 1993, p. 3.45. Ivica Mišić, “Program svršenog čina [A Program of Fait Accompli]”, Oslobođenje (Liberation), 27.maja/svibnja 1993, p. 3.46. “Kako pomoći BiH? [How to Help Bosnia]”, Oslobođenje (Liberation), 13.jula/srpnja 1993, p. 8.47. “Karadžić saosjeća sa Kurdima! [Karadzic Sympathizes with Kurds]”, Oslobođenje (Liberation), 13.jula/srpnja 1993, p. 8.48. “Za BiH—7.600 vojnika [7600 Troops for Bosnia]”, Oslobođenje (Liberation), 14.jula/srpnja 1993, p. 8.49. Joseph Fitchett, “West Anxious to Refuse a Muslim Peace Force”, New York Times, 14 July 1993.50. Frank J. Prial, “Security Council Demands Access for Red Cross to Yugoslav Camps”, New York Times, 5 August 1992.51. S/25437.52. Repertoire of the Practice of the Security Council, “The Situation in the Former Yugoslavia 1993–1995”, pp. 738–739. http://www.un.org/en/sc/repertoire/93-95/Chapter%208/EUROPE/93-95_8-21-YUGOSLAVIA.pdf (accessed 10 December 2012).53. “Vrijeme za akciju [Time for Action]”, Oslobođenje (Liberation), 22.avgusta/kolovoza 1993, p. 1.54. Malcolm, Bosnia: A Short History, op. cit., p. 253.55. “Osigurati pravedno rješenje [Finding a Just Solution]”, Oslobođenje (Liberation), 13.septembra/rujna 1993, p. 1.56. “Silom ukloniti opsadu bh. gradova [To Lift the Sieges of Bosnian Towns with Force]”, Oslobođenje (Liberation), 27.XII 1993, p. 1.At the end of December 1993, the leader of opposition in Pakistan Nawaz Sharif visited Sarajevo. He stated that Pakistan supported the Bosnian cause and noted that his country hosted a special OIC foreign ministers conference the previous July to discuss Bosnia. He also called for a lifting of the arms embargo and pledged to continue efforts at the OIC and the UN in this regard. See Se. Kurtović, “Embargo se mora ukinuti [Embargo Must Be Lifted]”, Oslobođenje (Liberation), 31.XII 1993, p. 3.57. For a more detailed analysis of the policy considerations about lifting the embargo and conducting air strikes, see Malcolm, Bosnia: A Short History and David Halberstam, War in a Time of Peace: Bush, Clinton and the Generals, New York: Scribner, 2001.58. Malcolm, Bosnia: A Short History, op. cit., p. 255.59. “Conflict in the Balkans: Islamic Group Offering U.N. A Force of 10,000 for Bosnia”, New York Times, 11 February 1994.60. S/1994/135.61. “Zatraženo ukidanje embarga [Lifting of the Embargo Sought]”, Oslobođenje (Liberation), 8.IV.1994, p. 1.62. “OIK za širu akciju” [OIC for a Broader Action], Oslobođenje (Liberation), 13.IV 1994, p. 8.63. Repertoire of the Practice of the Security Council, “The Situation in the Former Yugoslavia 1993–1995”, pp. 768–771.64. Ibid., pp. 777–779.65. Ibid., pp. 783–786.66. Fahira Fejzić i Husein Živalj, “Za nesreću Bosne krivi su Ujedinjeni narodi [UN Guilty for Bosnia's Tragedy]”, Ljiljan (The Lily), 13.april 1994, broj 65, godina III, pp. 6–7.67. Malcolm, Bosnia: A Short History, op. cit., p. 258.68. “Spremna ‘plava rezerva’” [“Blue Reserve” Ready], Oslobođenje (Liberation), 14.V. 1994, p. 2.69. Declaration of the Ministerial Meeting of the Organization of the Islamic Conference Contact Group on Bosnia and Herzegovina held in Geneva on 4 August 1994, University of Liverpool Library, Special Collections and Archives, David Owen Papers, The Balkan Odyssey Digital Archive, Reference: BODA/2/2/5/20 and Press Communique, 4 August 1994, David Owen Papers, The Balkan Odyssey Digital Archive, Reference: BODA/2/2/5/21.70. Final Communique of the Seventh Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers Held in Islamabad—Islamic Republic of Pakistan, 2–4 Rabiul Thani 1415H, Corresponding to 7–9 September 1994, pp. 3–9.71. Resolutions Adopted by the Seventh Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers Held in Islamabad—Islamic Republic of Pakistan, 2–4 Rabiul Thani 1415H, Corresponding to 7–9 September 1994, pp. 10–12.72. S/1994/1088.73. Repertoire of the Practice of the Security Council, “The Situation in the Former Yugoslavia 1993–1995”, p. 799.74. Alija Izetbegović, Čudo bosanskog otpora: odabrani govori, intervjui, izjave 1994 [The Miracle of Bosnian Resistance: Selected Speeches, Interviews, Statements 1994], BiH Press, Sarajevo, 1995, pp. 140–144.75. The Seventh Islamic Summit Conference (Session of Fraternity and Revival), Casablanca, Kingdom of Morocco, 11–13 Rajab 1415H (13–15 December 1994).76. “Islamic Nations' Leaders Urge More Aid for Bosnia”, New York Times, 16 December 1994.77. “Učtivo ignoriranje [A Courteous Ignoring]”, Ljiljan (The Lily), 25.januar 1995, broj 106, p. 9.78. “Neophodan veći angažman islamskih zemalja [Islamic Counties' Greater Activisms Needed]”, Oslobođenje (Liberation), 16. III 1995, p. 1.79. “Spremni da pošalju mirovnjake u BiH [Ready to Send Peacekeepers to Bosnia]”, Oslobođenje (Liberation), 20.V 1995, p. 1.80. S/1995/445.81. S/1995/612.82. Michael Richardson, “Malaysia Says It Will Send Arms to Bosnians”, New York Times, 24 July 1995.83. Chris Hedges, “CWar Turns Sarajevo Away from Europe”, New York Times, 28 July 1995.84. Samira Begman-Karabeg, “Prekidamo embargo [We Are Lifting the Embargo]”, Ljiljan (The Lily), 26.juli 1995, broj 132, p. 6.85. Mahir Brestovac, “Prvi pokušaj pripitomljavanja velikih inkvizitora [The First Attempt to Domesticate the Great Inquisitors]”, Ljiljan (The Lily), 2. August 1995, broj 133, p. 4.86. Malcolm, Bosnia: A Short History, op. cit., pp. 265–268.87. Fahira Fejzić, “Odbrana časti i opstanka muslimana na tlu Evrope [Defense of Honor and Survival of Muslims in Europe]”, Ljiljan (The Lily), broj 140, 20.septembar 1995, p. 26.88. Final Communique, Twenty-Third Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers (Session of Peace, Solidarity and Tolerance), Conakry, Republic of Guinea, 17–20 Rajab, 1416H (9–12 December 1995).89. Ihsanoglu, Islamic World in the New Century, op. cit., pp. 116–119.90. D. Peranioć, “Hrvatskoj 150.000 dolara [$150 000 for Croatia]”, Oslobođenje (Liberation), 3.januar/siječanj 1993, p. 2.91. Richard Holbrooke, To End a War, New York: The Modern Library, 1998, p. 120.92. Ibid., p. 84.93. Izetbegović, Čudo bosanskog otpora: odabrani govori, intervjui, izjave 1994 [The Miracle of Bosnian Resistance: Selected Speeches, Interviews, Statements 1994], op. cit., p. 182.94. The Peace Implementation Council has 55 members—states and agencies—involved in the peace implemenation process in Bosnia. Members of the Steering Board of PIC, in addition to the OIC, are USA, UK, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the Presidency of the European Union, and the European Commission.95. The Peace Implementation Council and Its Steering Board, Office of the High Representative, http://www.ohr.int/pic/default.asp?content_id-38563 (accessed 11 December 2012).