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The Origins of Western Herbal Medicines for Kidney Diseases

2005; Elsevier BV; Volume: 12; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1016/j.ackd.2005.03.005

1548-5609

Alain Touwaide, Natale G. De Santo, G. Aliotta,

Complementary and Alternative Medicine Studies

This article gathers the data on the plants used for the treatment of pathologies of kidneys and the urinary tract from the most ancient medical texts of classical antiquity, the Corpus Hippocraticum, the Aristotelian Problems, and De Materia Medica by Dioscorides. If hippocratic information is scant and practical, aristotelian are of a more theoretical nature and propose an explanation of the action of drugs on the urinary tract. De Materia Medica, coming after a possible research activity in the Alexandrian School, reports the action of many drugs. The work had a deep influence on the subsequent centuries, up to the birth of modern pharmacochemistry. This article gathers the data on the plants used for the treatment of pathologies of kidneys and the urinary tract from the most ancient medical texts of classical antiquity, the Corpus Hippocraticum, the Aristotelian Problems, and De Materia Medica by Dioscorides. If hippocratic information is scant and practical, aristotelian are of a more theoretical nature and propose an explanation of the action of drugs on the urinary tract. De Materia Medica, coming after a possible research activity in the Alexandrian School, reports the action of many drugs. The work had a deep influence on the subsequent centuries, up to the birth of modern pharmacochemistry. What is new is not necessarily true and what is true is not necessarily new. (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis, 1977) Primitive human groups undoubtedly experienced edible, medicinal, and poisonous plants in their search for food. They learned by trial and error (aided by an insight lost to modern man and maybe also imitating the animal world) that eating certain leaves, berries, and roots could produce either health or discomfort. A formidable patrimony of knowledge was formed. The therapeutic use of plants in Eurasia, especially in the Mediterranean area, was first recorded in Egypt, Babylon, and India. Scientific study of plants and their therapeutic action did not begin until the sixth century ce; however, in Asia Minor and then spread westward to Greece and, beyond, to the Greek colonies of Southern Italy. Hippocrates (460, between 375 and 351 bce) and his followers forming the so-called Hippocratic or Coan School, as well as their supposed opponents on the mainland, the Cnidian school, first recorded the practice of therapeutics. The Corpus Hippocraticum gathers over 60 treatises of various origins from Hippocrates himself and his period up to late in the second century ce. During the subsequent period, Theophrastus (372/70-288/86 bce), a member of Aristotle's school in Athens, the so-called Lyceum, and then its director after Aristotle's death in 322 bce, laid down the basis of scientific botany in his works Historia Plantarum and De Causis Plantarum where he analyzed almost all aspects of plants, from morphology to physiology to pharmacognosy. During the first century ce, contemporary knowledge of medicinal plants was collected in 2 major encyclopedias: the Natural History by Pliny the Elder (22/3–79 ce) and De Materia Medica, by Dioscorides (first century ce), which for centuries served as the standard pharmacopeia of the West. After Dioscorides, the great physician Galen (129-after 216 ce), made an important contribution to the analysis of medicinal plants in De Simplicium Medicamentorum Temperamentis et Facultatibus (On the Mixtures and Properties of Simple Medicines).8Touwaide A. Strategie terapeutiche I farmaci [therapeutic strategies].in: Grmek M.D. Storia del Pensiero Medico Occidentale. 1. Antichità e Medioevo [Western Medical Thought From Antiquity to the Middle Ages]. Laterza, Rome1993: 349-369Google Scholar Ever since Galen, empirical data on medicinal plants continued to accrue. Theoretical pharmacology was dominated by Dioscorides' De Materia Medica, which was not only faithfully reproduced across generations but also epitomized, alphabetized, or summarized in different ways. It was also translated from Greek into Latin, Syriac, and Arabic and also from Arabic into Latin. At the end of the Middle Ages, pharmacology separated from botany and became the object of renewed interest. The Renaissance was the period of the great herbals, in which many medicinal plants were added to Dioscorides' list and were further accurately described in an attempt to establish a correspondence with native plants. The attitude toward past medicine changed radically during the 19th century, when a new medical science developed and progress was achieved as never before. The past seemed dead. To the average physician, the history of medicine appeared as a history of errors; nothing could be learned from it. Reading and studying ancient writers was only a waste of time. Science was worshipped, and the best minds turned to laboratory experimentation and research with great enthusiasm. The discovery and use of sulphamid drugs, antibiotics such as penicillin, and synthetic drugs during the 20th century ce led to a dramatic decline in the popularity of medicinal plants. Now the pendulum has swung to the other extreme. A resurgence of interest in medicinal plants has taken place during the last 2 decades. Ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology aim at preserving knowledge of plants traditionally used in therapy. These plants continue to represent a source for pharmacological screening, chemical analysis, and clinical trial. In this report, we gather the data coming from the most ancient written record at the origin of the Western tradition in the matter of kidney diseases. Hippocrates was born in the island of Cos in the Aegean sea around 460 bce to a wealthy family, Asclepiades, who were physicians. He learned medicine within his family and soon became famous, among others, for the treatment of Democritus; he was considered crazy by his cocitizens in Abdera (Thrace). Invited to the court of the Persian king Artaxerxes, Hippocrates refused and preferred to leave his native island to move to the continent (about 420 bce). He treated patients in Thessaly and in northern Greece (Thrace, Propontid, and Macedonia) as well as in the island of Thasos and visited also the sanctuary of Delphi. Although he always remained in close contact with his native island, he never returned to it and died in Larissa (Thessaly) sometime between 371 and 350 bce.4Jouanna J. Hippocrate [Hippocrates]. Fayard, Paris1992Google Scholar In the composite of over 60 treatises attributed to Hippocrates in extant Byzantine manuscripts, 2 describe in some detail uses of plants to treat kidney diseases1Aliotta G. Piomelli D. Pollio A. et al.Le Piante Medicinali del Corpus Hippocraticum. Guerini e Associati, Milan, Italy2003Google Scholar: the Internal Affections and the 7th book of the Epidemics. The former might come from the School of Cnidus (on the mainland, in front of the island of Cos) and seems to have been written around 400 to 390 bce. It contains the description of a certain number of diseases from head to toe, according to the following standard pattern: causes of the disease, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment. The latter, which probably dates back to mid-fourth century bce and was probably produced among Hippocrates' followers after the master's death, contains the description and treatment of a series of clinical cases. Here is the text of Internal Affections (14, partim)5Potter P. Hippocrates. vol 6. Harvard University Press & W Heinemann, Cambridge, MA1988Google Scholar: From the kidneys these four diseases arise. In the first one, the patient suffers the following: a sharp pain attacks his kidney, loin, flank, and his testicle on the same side as the kidney; he urinates frequently, and drips urine a little at a time; together with the urine, sand, too, is passed, and when the sand discharges through the urethra, it produces violent pain in it. When the patient has finished urinating, the pain stops; later, though, he labours under the same distress again. When he is passing urine, he rubs his penis because of the pain.Many physicians that do not understand the disease, when they see the sand, think the patient is suffering from stones of the bladder, which he is not, but rather from stones of the kidneys…When the case is such, clean the patient downwards with scammony juice or the root itself, first applying vapour-baths to the whole body. On the following day, clean downwards with juice from white chick-peas to the amount of two choes; add salt and give this to drink… The second case (chapter 15) is first treated with surgical means and then with similar medicines and the third (chapter 16) with scammony as the first: Another disease of the kidney: the urine passed is like the juice of roasted beef. This disease arises from dark bile, when it collects in the vessels extending to the kidney; when it has come to rest there, it ulcerates the vessels and the kidneys; thus, because of the ulceration, material of the kind described passes off with the urine. For a short time, pains are present in the loins, bladder, perineum and the kidney itself; then the attack relents, but after a short period it presses sharply again; sometimes pain also attacks the narrow part of the belly.When the case is such, clean the cavity downwards with scammony root, and give the same things to drink that are given to a patient with strangury…Let the patient drink boiled meal as gruel, adding honey, and otherwise follow a regimen that is strongly laxative; let him drink white Medean wine sweetened with honey, or some other pleasant one, well mixed with water… A fourth kidney disease (chapter 17) is treated in the same way. As for the Epidemics, they read as follows (chapter 115)7Smith W.D. Hippocrates. vol 7. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA1994Google Scholar: Clonegus, in Abdera, had a kidney disease. He urinated much blood, painfully, little by little. In addition a dysenteric bowel troubled him. He was given, early in the morning, goat's milk and a fifth part of water, boiled, to a total of three cotyls (= three cups) in all. And in the evening roasted bread, a main dish, beets or cucumber, thin red wine. And he was given ripe cucumber. When he kept this regimen his intestines stabilized, and the urine became pure. But he did drink milk until the urine became restored. Problems transmitted under the name of Aristotle (384–322 bce) are notebooks gradually constituted in the Aristotelian school. In a typical manner, they are constructed according to a homogenous pattern: a question followed by an answer. The answer is not necessarily unique, and the different solutions are not necessarily compatible with each other because several scholars may have worked on them through time.3Hett W.S. Aristotle. vol 15. W Heinemann & Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA1936Google Scholar Although some pharmacological therapeutic means for kidney pathologies are present in the Corpus Hippocraticum, they do not make evident any theoretical reflection to explain the action of drugs. In Problems of the Aristotelian School, instead, the question of the action of the diuretic agents is asked almost at the beginning of the first book. Significantly, the first question on the topic deals with the differences in the action of drugs.9Touwaide A. The Aristotelian school and the birth of theoretical pharmacology in ancient Greece.in: Pötzsch R. The Pharmacy. Windows on History. Editiones Roche, Basel1998: 11-21Google Scholar Why do some drugs relax the stomach, but not the bladder, while others relax the bladder, but not the stomach? It is because all medicinal foods, which are naturally wet and full of water, relax the bladder? For there all the undigested wet matter collects, for the bladder is the receptacle of all undigested moisture in the stomach, which does not remain there, but drains away before producing an action. But all medicinal foods which are earthy by nature relax the stomach, for into the stomach passes all solid matter. So that, if it has the power of producing any motion, it upsets the stomach (Problems, I, 40). The second question on this topic deals with a more subtle point: the differentiation of action of the drugs according to their quantity. The case taken into consideration is that of a diuretic drug that becomes a purgative one and conversely according to the dose used. The explanation is that low quantities allow the assimilation and, consequently, the primary action of the drugs, contrarily to higher quantities. The significant point is that the specific action of drugs is not explained in fact. There is a sort of predisposition of a drug for an action, which acts with the right dose, but the mechanism of the action is not explained. This is the point of the third question. "Why are sweet-smelling seeds and plants diuretic ? It is because they are warm and easily absorbed, and such things are diuretic ? For the internal heat digests quickly and the smell is not corporeal, since even the strong-smelling plants like garlic, which by their heat cure diuretic, produce more excretions. Sweet-smelling seeds are also hot" (Problems, I, 48). There is an attempt, here, to explain the therapeutical mechanism, linking it to the following organoleptic qualities: smelling and sensory perception (hot and cold). Moreover, a relation is introduced between the 2 parameters taken into account—sweet smelling is hot. Four hundred years after the death of Aristotle, during the first century ce the most comprehensive work on drugs of the ancient world was written, De Materia Medica by the Greek Dioscorides. It is an encyclopedia of all the substances used for pharmacological treatment known to Dioscorides. We have no information on how this body of scientific activity developed from Aristotle and his School to Dioscorides (ie, during the Alexandrian and Roman periods). But, because a regular pattern is used in the description of the drugs, we have to assume that, from the fourth century bce to the first century ce, research dealt with this topic, trying to register the action of drugs and to explain it according to a unified system. Probably, it was in the context of the Alexandrian School and of the research activity conducted in the Mouseion under the first kings of the Ptolemy dynasty. Whatever its origin, a vast research activity underpins Dioscorides' treatise, even though Dioscorides himself has been credited for a long time with the merit of having personally produced the information contained in De Materia Medica. However, we have to admit that he reproduced previous data because it appears in a comparison of his treatise with the Naturalis Historia of his Roman contemporary Pliny (23/24–79 ce); we see indeed identical or similar information in both works, and neither of the 2 has been copied from the other; they necessarily come from one or more identical sources, which could be Alexandrian. Nonetheless, the work of Dioscorides is of primary importance because of its exhaustiveness and its systematicity. Dioscorides was born in Cilicia, at Anazarba, possibly sometime around 25 ce. Interested in pharmacology since his youth, as he says in the preface of the work, he traveled a great deal because, he wrote, he had a military-like life. On this basis, he has been considered a soldier in the Roman troops of the emperors Claudius (emperor 41–54) and Nero (emperor 54–68) or Nero and Vespasian (69–79), although such an affirmation is not supported by the text. In any case, he wrote De Materia Medica after his active life, on the basis, he says, of his personal experience in the field.6Riddle J. Dioscorides on Pharmacy and Medicine. University of Texas Press, Austin, TX1985Google Scholar De Materia Medica contains the description of some 1,000 products used for the preparation of medicines, vegetable, animal, and mineral. Each substance is accurately described, its therapeutic properties inventoried, and its medical indications listed, with the full description of the possible preparation of the medicine itself.2Gunther R. The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides. Oxford University Press, Oxford1934Google Scholar, 11Wellmann M. Pedanii Dioscuridis Anazarbei De Materia Medica Libri Quinque. Weidmann, Berlin1906–1914Google Scholar In several manuscripts, the work is illustrated with representations of the plants. In the current state of research, it is not possible to know if these illustrations are original (ie, if they were inserted into the work by Dioscorides himself).10Touwaide A. De Santo N.G. Bellinghieri G. et al.Healing Kidney Diseases in Antiquity. Editoriale Bios, Cosenza2002Google Scholar In Table 1, we have summarized all the plants mentioned in De Materia Medica that were used for the treatment of pathologies of the kidneys and the urinary tract. It contains the Greek name of the plants, the reference to De Materia Medica (book and chapter), the current scientific and English names of the plants, the pathologies of the kidneys and urinary tract for the treament of which they were used, their properties, and in some cases their iatrogenic action. Plants are listed according to the alphabetical order of their Greek names (transliterated in Latin alphabet). A double index follows: scientific names and English names (in both cases with the corresponding Greek name).Table 1Plants Used to Treat Kidney Diseases According to Dioscorides's De Materia MedicaGreek nameDios.Scientific NameEnglish NameIndication/PropertyAbrotonon3.24Artemisia abrotanum LSouthernwoodDysuriaAdianton4.134Adiantum capillus-veneris LMaidenhairDysuria, stonesAgarikon3.1Fomes officinalis Bresadola Polyporus sulphureus FriesAgaricDysuria, kidneysAgchousa4.23Anchusa tinctoria LAlkanetNephriticsAgêraton4.58Achillea ageratum Lsweet maudinDiureticAgnos1.103Vitex agnus-castus Lchaste-treeDropsyAgrôstis4.29Cynodon dactylon PersBermuda grassDysuria, bladder (wounds), stonesAgrôstis en parnassô4.31Parnassia palustris LCommon grass of ParnassusDiuretic (highly)Akalêfê4.93Urtica sppNettleDiureticAkantha leukê3.12Cnicus benedictus LCnicusDiureticAkanthos3.17Acanthus mollis LBears breechDiureticAkoron1.2Iris pseudoacorus LYellow irisDiuretic, stranguryAktê4.173Sambucus nigra LElder treeDropsy (diet)Althaia3.146Althaea officinalis LMarsh mallowDysuria, stonesAmi3.62Carum copticum LAmmiDysuriaAmmôniakon3.84gum of Ferula marmarica LAmmoniacumHaematuria (provokes)Amômon1.15Amomum cardamomum L, A subulatum RoxbCardamonNephriticsAmpeloprason2.150Allium ampeloprasum LBlue-leekDiuretic (strongly)Ampelos oinoforos5.1Vitis vinifera LVineStonesAmpelos agria4.181Vitis silvestris GmelWild grape vineDropsyAmpelos leukê4.182Bryonia dioica JacqSnake bryonyDiureticAmpelos melaina4.183Tamus nigra LBlack grape vineDiureticAmugdalê1.123Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb (= P. amygdalus Batsch)Bitter almond treeDysuria, stones, nephriticsAndrachnê2.124Portulaca oleracea LPurslaneBladder, bladder (pain), bite of the kidneysAndrosakes3.133Acetabularia mediterranea LSea-navelDropsy (diuretic)Anêsson3.56Pimpinella anisum LAniseDiureticAnêthon3.58Anethum graveolens LDillDiureticAnônis3.18Ononis antiquorum LTall rest harrowDiuretic stonesAnthemis3.137Anthemis chia LChia chamomilleStones, diureticAnthullis3.136Cressa cretica LResin weedDysuriaApsinthion3.23Artemisia absinthium LWormwoodDiuretic, dropsyArkeuthos1.75Juniperus communis LCommon juniper treeDiureticArktion4.105Verbascum orientale (L) All. (= Celsia orientalis L), V acaule (Bory & Chaub.) O Kuntze (= Celsia acaulis Bory)MulleinDysuriaAmoglôsson2.126Plantago sppPlantainBladder (wounds), kidneysArtemisia3.113Artemisia arborescens L, A campestris L, A genipi Weber, A maritima LTree wormwood, wormwood, sea wormwoodStones, anuriaAsaron1.10Asarum europaeum LAsarabaccaDiuretic, dropsyAsfodelos2.169Asphodelus sppAsphodelDiureticAspalathos1.20Alhagi maurorum MedikCamel thornDysuriaAsparagos2.50Asparagus officinalis LAsparagusDysuriaAsplênos3.134Ceterach officinarum DCSealy spleenwortStrangury, stonesAstragalos4.61Astragalus boeticus L, A atticusBoetic astragal Attic astragalDiureticBakcharis3.44Helichrysum sanguineum Boiss (= Gnaphalium sanguineum L)Red cudweedDysuriaBalsamon1.19Commiphora gileadensis (L) C Chr (= C opobalsamum Engl)Balm of GileadDiuretic, dysuriaBolbos edôdimos2.170Muscari comosum (L) MillFair-haired hyacinthDropsy (edema)Bounion4.123Bunium ferulaceum Sibth & SmEarth nutDiuretic, kidneys, bladderBrathu1.76Juniperus sabina LSabinHaematuria (provokes)Chalbanê3.83Ferula gumosa Boiss (= F galbaniflua Boiss & Buhse)Galbanum plantDysuria (provokes)Chamaidafnê4.147Ruscus racemosus LAlexandrian laurelDiureticChamaileôn leukos3.8Atractylis gummifera LWhite chameleonDropsy, dysuriaChamaipitus3.158Ajuga chamaepitys Schreb, A Chia Schreb, A iva SchrebGround pine, Chia bugle, herb ivyDysuria, nephriticsChamairôps3.98Teucrium chamaedrys L, T ludicum LCommon germander, germanderDysuria, dropsyDafnê1.78Laurus nobilis LLaurelBladder, stonesDafnê alexandreia4.145Ruscus hypophyllum LBay of AlexandriaStranguryDaukos3.72Athamanta cretensis LCandy carrotDiureticDrakontion2.166Dracunculus vulgaris SchottCommon dragonDiureticDruos balanoi1.106fruits of Quercus sppAcornsDiureticElafoboskon3.69Pastinaca sativa LCommon parsnipNephritics, bladder, diureticElatê1.109fruit of Phoenix dactylifera LFruit of date palmNephritics, bladderElelisfakon3.33Salvia sppSageDiureticElenion1.28Inula helenium LElecampaneDiureticElichruson4.57Helichrysum orientale (L) Gaertn., H stoechas (L) Moench, H siculum (Sprengel) Boiss vs Jordan & FournGold-flower, cassidonyDysuria, blood clots in the bladderErebinthos2.104Cicer arietinum LChick-peaDiuretic (highly), dropsy, noxious for the bladder, noxious for the kidneysErpullos3.38Thymus serpyllum LMother of thymeDiureticÊruggê3.21Eryngium viride Link, E planum Matth, E maritimum L, E campestre LEryngo, seaholly, common eryngoDiureticEruthrodanon3.143Rubia tinctorum LMadderDiureticEuzômon2.140Eruca sativa MillRocketDiureticEuzômon agrion2.140Eruca sativa MillWild rocketDiuretic (strongly)Falêris3.142Phalaris canariensis LCanary grassBladder (pains)Foinix1.109Phoenix dactylifera LDate palmBladderFou1.11Valeriana phu LValerianDiureticGiggidion2.137Malabaila sekakul BoissGingidionDiureticGlukusidê3.140Paeonia sppPeonyNephriticsIppomarathon3.71Cachrys ferulacea (L) Calestani (= Prangos ferulacea (L) Lindley)PrangosStrangury, stonesIpposelinon3.67Smyrnium olusatrum LAlexandersStranguryIppouris4.46Equisetum sylvaticum L, E arvense LHorse-tail, false horse-tailDiuretic, bladder (cuts)Iris1.1Iris × germanica var florentina Dykes, I germanica L, I pallida LamIrisInvolontary emission of spermKalaminthê3.35Acinos alpinus (L) Moench (= Calamintha alpina (L) Lam), Calamintha nepeta (L) Savi, C Nepeta subsp glandulosa (Req) PW Ball (= C officinalis Moench)Mountain calamint, calamint, common calamintDiureticKapparis2.173Capparis spinosa LCommon caper bushDiureticKardamômon1.6Elettaria cardamomum (L) MatonLesser cardamomNephritics, dysuria, stonesKarô3.57Carum carvi LCommon carrawayDiureticKassia1.13Cinnamomum cassia BlumeCassia treeDiuretic, kidneysKaukalis2.139Orlaya grandiflora (L) Hoffm (= Caucalis grandiflora L)Hedge parsleyDiureticKedros1.77Juniperus sppJuniperStranguryKegchros2.97Panicum miliaceum L subsp MiliaceumMilletDiureticKerasia1.113Prunus avium (L) L, P cerasus LSour cherry, cherry treeStonesKestron4.1Stachys officinalis (L) TrevisBetonyDiuretic, bladder (pain) dropsy, nephriticsKinamômon1.14Cinnamomum tamala (Buch-Ham) Nees & EbermCinnamonDiuretic, dropsy, dysuriaKisthos1.97Cistus sppCistusDiureticKonuza3.121Inula sppInulaStranguryKoris3.157Hypericum coris L ?St John's wortDiureticKostos1.16Saussurea costus (Falc) Lipsch (= S lappa (Decn) C B Clarke)CostusDiureticKotulêdôn4.91Umbilicus rupestris (Salisb) Dandy (= U pendulinus DC)Lady's navelStones, diurectic, dropsyKrambê2.120Brassica cretica Lam, B oleracea LCabbage, cauliflowerDiuretic (strongly)Krêthmon2.129Crithmum maritimum LSamphireDysuriaKrithê2.86Hordeum vulgare L subsp VulgareCommon barleyDiureticKrokos1.27Crocus sativus LSaffronDiureticKromuon2.151Allium cepa LOnionDiuretic (strongly)Kudônia mêla1.115Cydonia oblonga MillQuinceDiureticKuminon agrion eteron3.61Lagoecia cuminoides LCommon mild cuminStrangury, stones blood clots in the urineKuparissos1.74Cupressus sempervirens LCypress treeIncontinence, dysuriaKuperos1.4Cyperus rotundus LNut grassDiuretic, stones, dropsyKutisos4.112Laburnum anagyroides Medic (= Cytisus laburnum L)BroomDiureticLapathon2.114Rumex sppDockStonesLeukê1.81Populus alba LWhite poplarStranguryLibanôtis3.74Cachrys libanotis LRosemary frankincenseDiureticLigustikon3.51Levisticum officinale WDJ KochLovageDiureticLithospermon3.141Lithospermum officinale LCommon gromwellStones, diureticLogchitis3.144Serapias lingua LHolly fernDiureticMalabathron1.12Cinnamonum tamala (Buch.-Ham) Nees & Ederm, C iners Bl., C verum J Presl (= C zeylanicum Bl)CinnamonDiuretic (strongly)Mêkôn keratitis4.65Glaucium flavum CrantzYellow homed poppyThick urineMelanthion3.79Nigella sativa LBlack cuminDiureticMêon1.3Meum athamanticum JacqBald-moneyBladder (phimosis), kidneys (phimosis), dysuriaMolochê2.118Malva sylvestris LCommon mallowBladder (pain)Mursinê1.112Myrtus communis LMyrtleBladder (bite), diureticMursinê agria4.144Ruscus aculeatus LButcher's broomDiuretic, stones, stranguryNardos1.7Nardostachys grandiflora DC = N jatamansi aucttSpikenardDiuretic, nephriticsNardos keltikê1.8Valeriana celtica LCeltic spikenardDiuretic (strongly), bladder, kidneysOinanthê5.4flower of Vitis sylvestris GmelFruit of wild wine grapeDiureticÔkimon2.141Ocimum basilicum LBasilDiuretic, dysuriaOnobruchis3.153Onobrychis caput galli Lmk, O viciifolia ScopSainfoin, cock's headStranguryOreoselinon3.65Athamanta macedonica (L) SprengMacedonian parsleyDiureticOriganos3.27Origanum heracleoticum LOriganumDropsyOrobos2.108Vicia ervilia (L) WilldErsDiuretic, dysuriaPagkration2.172Pancratium maritimum LSea pancratium lilyDropsyPaliouros1.92Paliurus australis Gaertn (= P Spina-christi Mill)Christ's thornStones, diureticPanakes êrakleion3.48Achillea millefolium LMilfoilStrangury, bladder (scurvy)Parthenion3.138Tanacetum parthenium (L) Sch Bip (= Chrysanthemum parthenium (L) (Bernh)Fever-few, chrysanthemumStonesPêganon3.45Ruta graveolens LCommon rueDiureticPeperi2.159Piper nigrum LBlack pepper plantDiureticPepôn2.135Citrullus lanatus (Thunb) Masam. & Nakai (= C vulgaris Schrad)WatermelonDiureticPeriklumenon4.14Lonicera etrusca G SantiHoneysuckleDiureticPetroselinon3.66Petroselinum crispum (Mill) Nyman ex AW Hill (= P hortense Hoffm.)Common garden parsleyDiuretic, kidney (pain), bladder (pain)Peukedanon3.78Peucedanum officinale LHog's fennelBladder (pain), kidney (pain)Pitus1.69Pinus halepensis MillAleppo pine treeDiureticPolemônion4.8Hypericum olympicum L Polemonium caeruleum LSt. John's wort, Greek valerianDiuretic, dysuriaPolion3.10Teucrium polium LCat timeDropsyPolugonon arren4.4Polygonum aviculare LKnot grassStrangury, diureticPoluknêmon3.94Ziziphora capitata LField basilStranguryPrasion3.105Marrubium vulgare L, M peregrinum L (= M creticum Miller)Common white, horehound, Cretan horehoundNoxious for the bladder, noxious for the kidneysPrason2.149Allium porrum LLeekDiuretic, noxious for the bladder, noxious for the kidneysPseudobounion4.124Pimpinella cretica Poir (?) or Bunium aromaticum L (?)Cretan pimpinell earth-nutStranguryRa3.2Rheum ribes LRhaponticNephritics, bladderRafanis2.112Raphanus sativus, var niger J KemCommon cultivated radishDiuretic, dropsyRafanis agria2.112Raphanus raphanistrum ssp landra (Moretti ex DC) Bonnier & Layens (= R landra Moretti ex DC)Wild radishDiureticSampsouchon3.39Origanum majorana L (= Majorana hortensis Moench)Sweet marjoramDropsy, dysuriaSchinos1.70Pistacia lentiscus LLentiskDiureticSchoinos4.52Scirpus spp, Juncus sppRushDiureticSchoinos1.17Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L) SprengCamel's hayDiuretic, kidney (pain), dropsySelinon Kêpaion3.64Apium graveolens L var rapaceum (Mill) GaudinCeleryDiuretic (strongly)Sikus agrios4.50Ecballium elaterium (L) A RichSquirting cucumberDropsySikus êmeros2.135Cucumis melo L subsp meloMelonBladder, diuretic, bladder (wounds)Silfion3.80?SilphiumNoxious for the bladder, dropsySinôn3.55Sison amomum L ?Bastard stone parsleyDysuriaSion2.127Berula erecta (Hudson) Coville (= Sium angustifolium L, S erectum Hudson)ParsnipStones, diureticSisaron2.113Pastinaca sativa LCommon parsnipDiureticSisumbrion2.128Nasturtium officinale R BrWatercressDiureticSisumbrion3.41Mentha longifolia (L) Hudson (= M silvestris L), M viridis (L) LWild mint, common mintStrangury, stonesSkandix2.138Scandix pecten-veneris LShepherd's needleDiuretic, bladder, kidneysSkilla2.171Urginea maritima (L) BakerSquillDiuretic, dropsySkordion3.111Teucrium scordium LWater germanderDiuretic, dysuriaSkordon2.152Allium sativum LGarlicDropsySmilax kêpaia2.146Vigna unguiculata (L) Walp (= V sinensis (L) Savi ex Hassk.)Cow peaDiureticSmurnion3.68Smyrnium olusatrum LAlexandersDiuretic, kidneys, bladder, dropsyStafulê5.3fruit of Vitis vinifera LWine grapeNoxious for bladder, kidneysStafulinos agrios3.52Daucus carota L subsp sativus (Hoffm) ArcangCarrotDysuria, dropsy, diuretic, aphrodisiacStratiôtês4.101Pistia stratiotes LWater lettuceHemorrhages from the kidneysStrobiloi1.69Pinus spPine conesDiuretic, bladder (acidity), kidneys (acidity)Strouthion2.163Saponaria officinalis LSoapwortDiuretic, stonesStruchnon alikakkabon4.71Physalis alkekengi LWinter cherryDiureticStruchnon upnôtikon4.72Withania somnifera (L) DunalWithaniaDropsySuka1.128Ficus carica LCommon figBladder, kidneys, dropsyTerminthos1.71Pistacia terebinthus LTurpentine treeDiureticThumos3.36Satureja thymbra LSavory of CreteDiureticTordilon3.54Tordylium officinale LSmall hartwortDysuriaTragakantha3.20Astragalus gummifer Labill, A microcephalus WilldGum astragalKidney (pain), bladder (bite)Tragion4.49Pistacia palaestina BoissTurpentine treeStrangury, stonesTragoriganos3.30Origanum heracleoticum LOriganumDiureticTribolos4.15Tribulus terrestris LCaltropStonesTrifullon3.109Bitumaria bitumosa (L) CH Stirt (= Psoralea bituminosa L)Bitumen trefoilDysuria, dropsyTripolion4.132Aster tripolium LSeastarwortDiureticUakinthos4.62Scilla bifolia L, S hyacinthoïdes LHyacinthDiureticUperikon3.154Hypericum triquetrifolium Turra (= H crispum L), H perforatum LSt. John's wort, perforate St. John's wortDiureticXuris4.22Wild species of iris (undetermined) Iris sppWild irisStrangury, diuretic (highly) Open table in a new tab The body of data gathered by Dioscorides played an important role throughout medical history. De Materia Medica was indeed translated into Latin, Syriac, Arabic, Persian, and during the Renaissance into several vernacular languages. It constituted the basis for pharmacological treatment of diseases for centuries and even, according to some scholars, until the rise of chemical pharmacology in the 19th century.