Edmund Burke's Ideas on Historical Change
2014; Routledge; Volume: 40; Issue: 5 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/01916599.2013.867651
ISSN1873-541X
Autores Tópico(s)American Constitutional Law and Politics
ResumoSummaryBurke's view of history is an aspect of his thought that has been largely neglected by scholars, despite the wide recognition of its importance. In Burke's view, history, led by providence and by a human nature designed by God, is necessarily progressive. It is, nevertheless, human beings who are largely responsible for building their nations. A variety of civilisations could be generated if people governed a nation in harmony with its peculiar manners and circumstances. Nations can, however, be unstable, because their fortunes fluctuate. Although Burke was very familiar with—and influenced by—several different traditions of historiography, his ideas on history should also be seen as the product of his own reflections.Keywords: Burkeprogressdiversitycivilisationshistory of historiography AcknowledgementsThis article was largely drawn from parts of the present author's PhD dissertation submitted to the University of Edinburgh in October 2013 (the PhD research project supported by a scholarship from the Japan Student Services Organization). I would like to thank Thomas Ahnert, Harry Dickinson, Richard Bourke, Gordon Pentland and the anonymous referees of this journal for their helpful comments, advice and proofreading of an earlier version of this article. I am also grateful to Chris Perkins, Teri Cullen and Richard L Stevenson for their proofreading of drafts of this article.Notes1 Three Memorials on French Affairs. Written in the Years 1791, 1792 and 1793. By the Late Right Hon. Edmund Burke (London, 1797), xxix. See also James Barry, The Works of James Barry, 2 vols (London, 1809), I, 252; Francis Hardy, Memoirs of the Political and Private Life of James Caulfield, Earl of Charlemont, 2 vols (London, 1812), II, 285; Stephen Lucius Gwynn, Henry Grattan and His Times (London, 1939), 382.2 Paul Langford, ‘Edmund Burke’, in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, http://www.oxforddnb.com/index/4/101004019/ (accessed 10 November 2013). For a Burkean tradition in nineteenth-century historiography, see J. W. Burrow, A Liberal Descent: Victorian Historians and the English Past (Cambridge, 1981).3 Thomas Babington Macaulay, Critical and Historical Essays, in The Works of Lord Macaulay, Complete, edited by Lady Trevelyan, 8 vols (London, 1866), VI, 619–20.4 Cambridge University Library, Add. MS 4967, card 61; Add. MS 4967, card 65; Add. MS 4967, card 74; Add. MS 4967, card 76. For Acton's views on Burke, see Seamus F. Deane, ‘Lord Acton and Edmund Burke’, Journal of the History of Ideas, 33 (1972), 325–35; G. E. Fasnacht, Acton's Political Philosophy: An Analysis (London, 1952), 60–63, 190–98, passim.5 William Graham, English Political Philosophy: From Hobbes to Maine (London, 1899), 92; Leslie Stephen, English Literature and Society in the Eighteenth Century: Ford Lectures, 1903 (London, 1904), 198; Alfred Cobban, Edmund Burke and the Revolt Against the Eighteenth Century: A Study of the Political and Social Thinking of Burke, Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Southey, second edition (London, 1960), 85. See also Leo Strauss, Natural Right and History (Chicago, IL, 1953), 304. The similarity between Burke and Hegel or nineteenth-century biology has frequently been suggested; for example, see Strauss, Natural Right and History, 319; Ernest Barker, ‘Burke on the French Revolution’, in Essays on Government (Oxford, 1945); George H. Sabine, A History of Political Theory, third edition (London, 1963), 617–19.6 John. C. Weston, Jr, ‘Edmund Burke as Historian’, (Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Carolina, 1956); Walter D. Love, ‘Edmund Burke's Historical Thought’ (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1956). Later, Weston published part of his dissertation; see John C. Weston, Jr, ‘Edmund Burke's View of History’, The Review of Politics, 23 (1961), 203–29. For other Ph.D. dissertations which examine Burke as historian, see Thomas R. Knox, ‘Edmund Burke: Natural Law and History’ (Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, 1969); Clara I. Gandy, ‘Edmund Burke and the Whig Historians’ (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Tennessee, 1973).7 Weston, ‘Burke as Historian’, 170–71, 225.8 Love, ‘Burke's Historical Thought’, 209, 213–14.9 Weston, ‘Burke as Historian’, 148, 153, 158, 166, 168, 193; Love, ‘Burke's Historical Thought’, 167, 176, 209. The organic view of history here is the idea that society, like a living organism, has naturally grown rather than being artificially constructed.10 John C. Weston, Jr, ‘Edmund Burke's Irish History: A Hypothesis’, Publications of the Modern Language Association of America, 77 (1962), 397–403; Walter D. Love, ‘Edmund Burke and an Irish Historiographical Controversy’, History and Theory, 2 (1962), 180–98. For a recent attempt to reveal Burke's view of Irish history, see Séan Patrick Donlan, ‘The “Genuine Voice of its Records and Monuments”? Edmund Burke's “Interior History of Ireland”’, in Edmund Burke's Irish Identities, edited by Séan Patrick Donlan (Dublin, 2006), 69–101.11 J. G. A. Pocock, ‘Burke and the Ancient Constitution: A Problem in the History of Ideas', The Historical Journal, 3 (1960), 125–43, republished in J. G. A. Pocock, Politics, Language and Time: Essays on Political Thought and History (New York, NY, 1971).12 H. T. Dickinson, ‘The Eighteenth-Century Debate on the “Glorious Revolution”’, History, 61 (1976), 28–45.13 J. C. D. Clark, ‘Introduction’, in Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France, edited by J. C. D. Clark (Stanford, CA, 2001), 41.14 For instance, see James Currie, A Letter, Commercial and Political, Addressed to the Right Honourable William Pitt: In Which the Real Interests of Britain in the Present Crisis Are Considered, and Some Observations Are Offered on the General State of Europe. By Jasper Wilson, Esq. (London, 1793), 42–43.15 For this, especially, see J. G. A. Pocock, ‘The Political Economy of Burke's Analysis of the French Revolution’, in Virtue, Commerce, and History: Essays on Political Thought and History, Chiefly in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, 1985); R. J. Smith, The Gothic Bequest: Medieval Institutions in British Thought, 1688–1863 (Cambridge, 1987); Mark Salber Phillips, Society and Sentiment: Genres of Historical Writing in Britain, 1740–1820 (Princeton, NJ, 2000), 220–55.16 For the Account, see Michel Fuchs, Edmund Burke, Ireland, and the Fashioning of Self (Oxford, 1996), 86–111; F. P. Lock, Edmund Burke, 2 vols (Oxford, 1998–2006), I, 125–41; Jeffrey O. Nelson, ‘A Map of Mankind: Edmund Burke's Image of America in an Enlightened Atlantic Context’, (Edinburgh University, Ph.D. dissertation, 2007). Although the authorship of the Account is problematic, commentators have increasingly been recognising it as Burke's in recent years. In the present essay, it is assumed that the Account was a collaborative work of Edmund Burke and William Burke, and that they shared the notions expressed in this work. For the Abridgment, see Smith, The Gothic Bequest, 85–92; T. O. McLoughlin, ‘Edmund Burke's Abridgment of English History’, Eighteenth-Century Ireland, 5 (1990), 45–59; Lock, Burke, I, 141–64; Ian Crowe, Patriotism and Public Spirit: Edmund Burke and the Role of the Critic in Mid-Eighteenth-Century Britain (Stanford, CA, 2012), 174–217.17 See also Rodney W. Kilcup, ‘Burke's Historicism’, The Journal of Modern History, 49 (1977), 394–410; James Conniff, The Useful Cobbler: Edmund Burke and the Politics of Progress (Albany, NY, 1994), especially chapter three.18 See especially David Spadafora, The Idea of Progress in Eighteenth-Century Britain (New Haven, CT, 1990); Karen O'Brien, Narratives of Enlightenment: Cosmopolitan History from Voltaire to Gibbon (Cambridge, 1997); J. G. A. Pocock, Barbarism and Religion, 5 vols (Cambridge, 1999–).19 Edmund Burke, A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful, edited by James T. Boulton (London, 1958), 49.20 Burke, A Philosophical Enquiry, 50.21 Burke, A Philosophical Enquiry, 50.22 Burke, Reflections, 254–55.23 Edmund Burke, An Essay towards an Abridgment of the English History, in The Writings and Speeches of Edmund Burke (hereafter WS), edited by Paul Langford and others, 8 vols to date (I-III, V-IX) (Oxford, 1981–), I, 349.24 Edmund Burke and William Burke, Account of the European Settlements in America, 2 vols (London, 1757), I, 192–93. See also Lock, Burke, I, 138.25 Burke, Abridgment, in WS, I, 400, 510–11.26 For this, especially, see Policy of Making Conquests for the Mahometans, in WS, V, 41–124.27 Burke was sometimes highly critical of Ottoman Turkey; see The Parliamentary History of England from the Earliest Period to the Year 1806, edited by William Cobbett 36 vols (London, 1806–1820), XXIX, 76–77. See also Edmund Burke, A Letter to a Member of the National Assembly, in WS, VIII, 307.28 Edmund Burke, Tracts Relating to Popery Laws (1765), in WS, IX, 459.29 Burke and Burke, Account, II, 191, 222–3. See also Burke and Burke, Account, II, 165 for the case of Rhode Island.30 Burke, Abridgment, in WS, I, 393.31 Burke, Abridgment, in WS, I, 346–47.32 Burke, Abridgment, in WS, I, 393–94.33 Burke and Burke, Account, I, 50–51; II, 55–56, 102–05, 283–84.34 Burke, Abridgment, in WS, I, 399.35 This problem is discussed in Weston, ‘Burke's View of History’, 226–27.36 Edmund Burke, Fragment: An Essay towards an History of the Laws of England, in WS, I, 324, 330; Burke, Abridgment, in WS, I, 453. The Norman Conquest was one of the popular reference points in eighteenth-century political debates; see Dickinson, ‘Eighteenth-Century Debate on the “Glorious Revolution”’, 28–29.37 For the Crusades, see Burke, Abridgment, in WS, I, 481, 487, 495, 519-521, 525, 548.38 Burke, Abridgment, in WS, I, 511.39 Edmund Burke, ‘Speech on Opening of Impeachment’, in WS, VI, 307–08; Edmund Burke, Speech on Fox's India Bill, in WS, V, 401–02.40 Burke and Burke, Account, II, 16–17.41 Burke, Reflections, 295.42 Burke, Abridgment, in WS, I, 339. In the Account, the same point was made about late medieval Italy; see Burke and Burke, Account, I, 3.43 Edmund Burke, ‘Speech on Conciliation with America (22 March 1775)’, in WS, III, 129.44 Josiah Tucker, A Letter to Edmund Burke (Gloucester, 1775), 43.45 See Annual Register […] for the Year 1764 (London, 1765), 250.46 Edmund Burke, Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents (1770), in WS, II, 258.47 Edmund Burke, First Letter on a Regicide Peace (1796), in WS, IX, 242.48 Burke, Abridgment, in WS, I, 453; Burke, Fragment, in WS, I, 325. A similar argument was made later in Edmund Burke, ‘Report on the Lords Journals (30 April 1794)’, in WS, VII, especially 142, 168.49 Edmund Burke, ‘On a Motion Made in the House of Commons, the 7th of May, 1782, for a Committee to Inquire into the State of the Representation of the Commons in Parliament’, in The Works of the Right Honourable Edmund Burke, 6 vols (London, 1906–1907), III, 355.50 Burke, Reflections, 238–42.51 Burke, Reflections, 188, 264–65.52 Burke, Reflections, 204–05. For Burke's comments on Louis XIV's politics and his reign, see Burke, Tracts Relating to Popery Laws, in WS, IX, 459–60; Edmund Burke, Speech on Economical Reform (1780), in WS, III, 488; Edmund Burke, Substance of the Speech of the Right Honourable Edmund Burke, in the Debate on the Army Estimates, in the House of Commons, on Tuesday, the 9th Day of February, 1790 (London, 1790), 9–10; Burke, Reflections, 275; Burke, Letter to a Member of the National Assembly, in WS, VIII, 306; Burke, First Letter on a Regicide Peace, in WS, IX, 238. While being critical of a king tyrannical in politics and intolerant in religion, Burke acknowledged the growth of arts, manners and science during Louis' reign.53 Burke and Burke, Account, II, 16.54 Burke repudiated the notion that the British population in his age was declining; see Edmund Burke, ‘Speech on Poor Removals Law (2 March 1774)’, in WS, II, 403. He also believed that the French population had increased since the end of the seventeenth century; see Burke, Reflections, 296. Indian countries had been populous until Hastings plunged them into decline. For many eighteenth-century intellectuals, population was a barometer of the soundness of a nation's political and economic situation: ‘No country in which population flourishes, and is in progressive improvement, can be under a very mischievous government’; see Burke, Reflections, 295.55 Burke and Burke, Account, I, 5, 47.56 See Burke, Reflections, 396.57 Burke, Abridgment, in WS, I, 399.58 Edmund Burke, ‘Considerations on a Militia’, in Richard Bourke, ‘Party, Parliament, and Conquest in Newly Ascribed Burke Manuscripts’, The Historical Journal, 55 (2012), 619–52 (647–652).59 Burke, Abridgment, in WS, I, 366–68.60 Burke, Reflections, 181–84.61 Burke, Letter to a Member of the National Assembly, in WS, VIII, 302–03, 321–22.62 Burke and Burke, Account, II, 4–5.63 Burke and Burke, Account, II, 215–16.64 Burke, ‘Speech on Opening of Impeachment’, in WS, VI, 307–08; Burke, Letter to a Member of the National Assembly, in WS, VIII, 305–06; Edmund Burke, Second Letter on a Regicide Peace, in WS, IX, 289.65 Burke, ‘Speech on Opening of Impeachment’, in WS, VI, 355, 465; Edmund Burke, ‘Speech in Reply’, in WS, VII, 268–71, 276–78, 283–84, 300, 337; Burke, Second Letter on a Regicide Peace, in WS, IX, 289.66 Burke, ‘Speech on Opening of Impeachment’, in WS, VI, 309–10, 354–61; Burke, ‘Speech in Reply’, in WS, VII, 268–72, 283, 568.67 Edmund Burke, ‘National Character and Parliament’, in Bourke, ‘Party, Parliament, and Conquest’, 641; Bourke, ‘Party, Parliament, and Conquest’, 625–26.68 Presumably, however, Burke believed that the origins of a nation could not be discovered in any detail. As ancient history is obscure, so are the origins of government. He once maintained: ‘There is a secret veil to be drawn over the beginnings of all governments’; see Burke, ‘Speech on Opening of Impeachment’, in WS, V, 316–17.69 Burke, Reflections, 218.70 Edmund Burke, An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs, in Consequence of Some Late Discussions in Parliament, Relative to the Reflections on the French Revolution (London, 1791), 122.71 Burke, Appeal, 125.72 Burke, Appeal, 122.73 Burke, Appeal, 57.74 Burke and Burke, Account, II, 161–62, 288–89; Edmund Burke, Observations on a Late State of the Nation, in WS, II, 193–94.75 In particular, see Edmund Burke, Third Letter on a Regicide Peace, in WS, IX, 325.76 Edmund Burke, Letter to the Sheriffs of Bristol, in WS, III, 316.77 Burke, Letter to the Sheriffs of Bristol, in WS, III, 318.78 James Boswell, The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D. Comprehending an Account of His Studies and Numerous Works, in Chronological Order 2 vols (London, 1791), II, 165.79 Edmund Burke, ‘Speech on Bengal Judicature Bill (27 June 1781)’, in WS, V, 140–41.80 Burke, ‘National Character and Parliament’, in Bourke, ‘Party, Parliament, and Conquest’, 640–41; Bourke, ‘Party, Parliament, and Conquest’, 625–26.81 Burke, Appeal, 45–46.82 For Burke, the constitutions of both England and France were prescriptive. A prescriptive institution may be the product of the ability of humans to make right judgements over the long run. On 7 May 1782, in his draft speech, he asserted: ‘man is a most unwise and a most wise being. The individual is foolish. The multitude, for the moment, is foolish when they act without deliberation; but the species is wise, and when time is given to it, as a species, it almost always acts right’; see Burke, ‘Motion Made in the House of Commons, 7th May, 1782’, in The Works of the Right Honourable Burke, III, 355.83 The common people have an ability to detect the evil in governments, but they do not have the capacity to rule the nation; see Edmund Burke, Letter to Sir Hercules Langrishe (1792), in WS, IX, 621.84 ‘[N]o great Commonwealth could by any possibility long subsist, without a body of some kind or other of nobility, decorated with honour, and fortified by privilege’; see Edmund Burke, Letter to a Noble Lord, in WS, IX, 183.85 Edmund Burke, ‘On Parties’, in Bourke, ‘Party, Parliament, and Conquest’, 646.86 Burke, First Letter on a Regicide Peace, in WS, IX, 248; Edmund Burke, Letter to William Smith (1795), in WS, IX, 662.87 For example, see Burke, Speech on Fox's India Bill, in WS, V, 390, 425.88 Burke and Burke, Account, II, 288.89 Burke, Second Letter on a Regicide Peace, in WS, IX, 287.90 See Edmund Burke, Remarks on the Policy of the Allies, in WS, VIII, 498. For this, see Pocock, ‘Political Economy of Burke's Analysis’.91 The same point was made in Edmund Burke, Letter to a William Elliot (1795), in WS, IX, 40–41.92 Burke, First Letter on a Regicide Peace, in WS, IX, 188–89.93 Burke, First Letter on a Regicide Peace, in WS, IX, 189.94 Burke may have had in mind this kind of idea throughout his career; while reviewing John Brown's work, Burke declared: ‘[A] man must shut his eyes in good earnest, not to perceive that nations at one period strongly marked with all the characters of vice and barbarism, by some happy conjucture emerge to light at another; and distinguish themselves by virtue, by patriotism, by those arts that improve and adorn life; these nations fall again into corruption, vice, and ignorance. […] However, this degeneracy is by no means in an even course, some commonwealths having been most glorious in their beginnings; others after they had long continued’; see Annual Register […] for the Year of 1758 (London, 1759), 444–45.95 See especially, Abridgment, in WS, I, 440–3; Fragment, in WS, I, 322–5.96 Edmund Burke, ‘Clerical Subscription (6 Feb 1772)’, in WS, II, 364; Parliamentary History, XVII, 277 note, 283 note. See also Burke, ‘Letter to Sir Hercules Langrishe’, in WS, IX, 605–06; Burke, ‘Speech on Opening of Impeachment’, in WS, VI, 315.97 Burke, Substance of the Speech, 9th February, 1790, 26–30; Burke, Reflections, 163–184; Burke, Appeal, 57–83; Burke, ‘Letter to a Member of the National Assembly’, in WS, VIII, 321–22.98 Clark, ‘Introduction’, in Burke, Reflections, 95.99 Burke, First Letter on a Regicide Peace, in WS, IX, 192–93.100 Edmund Burke, ‘Hints of Ireland’, in Bourke, ‘Party, Parliament, and Conquest’, 642–44; Burke, Abridgment, in WS, I, 512–13.101 For Burke's view of the 1641 Irish rebellion, see Burke, Abridgment, in WS, I, 514; Burke, Tracts Relating to Popery Laws, in WS, IX, 478–79; ‘To Dr William Markham [post 9 November 1771]’, in The Correspondence of Edmund Burke, edited by Thomas W. Copeland and others, 10 vols (Cambridge, 1958–1978), II, 285; Edmund Burke, Letter to Richard Burke, in WS, IX, 655–56; Robert Bisset, The Life of Edmund Burke, 2 vols (London, 1800), II, 426–27. Burke and the Irish revisionists argued that this rebellion had been ‘provoked’ by the long-standing religious persecution practised by the Protestant governing minority.102 See Sir James Prior, Memoir of the Life and Character of the Right Hon. Edmund Burke, second edition (2 vols., London, 1826), I, 508–511; ‘Burke to Colonel Charles Vallancey (15 August 1783)’, in Correspondence, V, 108–110; ‘Burke to Colonel Charles Vallancey (29 November 1786)’, in Correspondence, V, 290–3; ‘Burke to Richard Burke, Jr (20 March 1792)’, in Correspondence, VII, 104.103 In 1787, Burke advised Thomas Campbell, who planned to write a history of Ireland, ‘to touch as lightly as possible upon the times preceding the invasion from England’; see Thomas Campbell, Strictures on the Ecclesiastical and Literary History of Ireland (Dublin, 1789), 1. Nevertheless, inspired by Samuel Johnson's opinions, Campbell's Strictures focused on the period from the ancient times to Henry II's conquest.104 For his discussion on the origins of the Irish legislature, see Burke, ‘Speech on Conciliation with America (22 March 1775)’, in WS, III, 139–40.105 For the eighteenth-century quarrel between the ancients and the moderns, for example, see Spadafora, Idea of Progress in Eighteenth-Century Britain, 26–28, 34–47, 333–41.106 Burke's favourite contemporary historian was William Robertson, whereas he was quite critical of Gibbon, Hume and others; see Donald Cross Bryant, Edmund Burke and His Literary Friends (St. Louis, MO, 1939), 59, 218, 223, 227; ‘Burke to Arthur Murphy (8 December 1793)’, in Correspondence, VII, 502. In the Annual Register, Burke wrote the very favourable review of Robertson's History of Scotland; see Annual Register […] for the Year 1759 (London, 1760), 489–94. Later, Burke wrote to Robertson to praise his History of America; see ‘Burke to William Robertson (9 June 1777)’, in Correspondence, III, 350–52. For Burke's views of Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, see James Northcote, The Life of Sir Joshua Reynolds, second edition, 2 vols (London, 1819), II, 31; Parliamentary History, XXI, 237. He might have written the critical comments on Voltaire as an historian; see ‘Voltaire’, in H. V. F. Somerset, A Note-Book of Edmund Burke (Cambridge, 1957), 118–20. The authorship of this piece of work is, however, still problematic.107 Burke's indebtedness to Montesquieu is widely recognised today. The pioneering work for their intellectual relationship is C. P. Courtney, Montesquieu and Burke (Oxford, 1963). According to Courtney, Burke was ‘the first British historian to copy the historical method of Montesquieu’; see Courtney, Montesquieu and Burke, 13.108 Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, Persian Letters, translated by C. J. Betts (London, 1973), 202–04. See also Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, edited by Anne M. Cohler, Basia C. Miller and Harold S. Stone (Cambridge, 1989), 452.109 Conyers Middleton, ‘The Introductory Discourse’, in A Free Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers, Which Are Supposed to Have Subsisted in the Christian Church (London, 1749), xlvi–xlvii; Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, edited by David Womersley, 3 vols (London, 1994), I, 474 note.110 Burke, Abridgment, in WS, I, 393–94. See also, Lock, Burke, I, 152–53.111 Adam Ferguson, An Essay on the History of Civil Society, edited by Fania Oz-Salzberger (Cambridge, 1995), 192; William Robertson, The Situation of the World at the Time of Christ's Appearance, and Its Connexion with the Success of His Religion, Considered (Edinburgh, 1755), 38–40, 42; William Robertson, ‘View of the Progress of Society in Europe’, in The Works of William Robertson, 12 vols, reprint of the 1794 edition (London, 1996), III, 80–86, 91; John Millar, The Origin of the Distinction of Ranks, edited by Aaron Garrett (Indianapolis, IN, 2006), 133, 137, 141. In his private library, Burke owned Richard Hurd, Moral and Political Dialogues; with Letters on Chivalry and Romance, 3 vols (London, 1765), as well as Ferguson's Essay; see Catalogue of Burke's library dated August 17, 1813, Bodleian MS Eng Misc d 722; Catalogue of the Library of the Late Right Hon. Edmund Burke, The Library of the Late Sir M. B. Clare, M.D. Some Articles from Gibbon's Library, &c. &c. […] Which Will be Sold by Auction by Mr. Evans […] (London, 1833), reprinted in Sale Catalogues of Libraries of Eminent Persons, Vol. viii: Politicians, edited by Seamus Deane (London, 1973), 12.112 Edmund Burke, ‘Speech at Bristol Previous to Election’, in WS, III, 639–40. For the Scottish Moderates’ views on the Reformation, see Colin Kidd, ‘Subscription, the Scottish Enlightenment and the Moderate Interpretation of History’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 55 (2004), 502–19 (513–15).113 Annual Register […] of the Year 1761 (London, 1762), 301 bis (from the 1760 volume, there are two sequences of page numbers in the Annual Register. Following F. P. Lock, I add bis to references to the second pagination; see Lock, Burke, I, 168 note; Annual Register […] of the Year 1761, 305–16 bis; Bisset, Life of Burke, II, 426–27; Sir James Prior, Life of Edmond Malone (London, 1860), 368–69.
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