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Introduction: Slavery, forced labour and resistance in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia1

2004; Frank Cass & Co.; Volume: 25; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/0144039042000292992

1743-9523

Gwyn Campbell, Edward A. Alpers,

African history and culture studies

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes We would like to thank Michael Salman for his comments on the drafts of the introduction. Indian Ocean Africa, hereafter IOA, is defined as those regions of continental Africa, from Egypt in the north to South Africa, bordering the Indian Ocean or its Red Sea extension, and the islands of the Western Indian Ocean. See also: Edward A. Alpers, Gwyn Campbell and Michael Salman (eds.), Resisting Bondage in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia (London: Routledge, 2005). See the contributions in this volume by Edward A. Alpers and Richard Allen; Hussein Ahmed, ‘Benevolent Masters and Voiceless Subjects: Slavery and the Slave Trade in Southern Wallo, Ethiopia in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries’, paper presented at the IC/ULBR. See e.g. Robert Castle, Jim Hagan and Andrew Wells, ‘ “Unfree Labor” on the Cattle Stations of Northern Australia, the Tea Gardens of Assam, and the Rubber Plantations of Indo-China, 1920–50’ in Alpers, Campbell and Salman (eds.), Resisting Bondage. G. Roger Knight, ‘Sugar and Servility: Themes of Forced Labour, Resistance and Accommodation in Mid-Nineteenth Century Java’ in Alpers, Campbell and Salman (eds.), Resisting Bondage. James L. Watson, ‘Transactions in People’, in Watson (ed.), Asian and African Systems of Slavery (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1980), pp.227, 229–30, 235–6, 240–44; chapter by Michael Lambek. For African comparisons, see Igor Kopytoff and Suzanne Miers, ‘African “Slavery” as an Institution of Marginality’, in idem (eds.), Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977), pp.10–11, 25. See, e.g., Anthony Reid, ‘Introduction: Slavery and Bondage in Southeast Asian History’, in Reid (ed.), Slavery, Bondage and Dependency in Southeast Asia (St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 1983), pp.6–8; Kopytoff and Miers, ‘African “Slavery” ’, pp.17–19. Gwyn Campbell, ‘Introduction’ to Campbell (ed.), Abolition and Its Aftermath in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia (London: Routledge, forthcoming). A theme covered in the international conference on Children in Slavery, held in Avignon from 19–21 May 2004. Peter Boomgaard, ‘Human Capital, Slavery and Low Rates of Economic and Population Growth in Indonesia, 1600–1910’ in Gwyn Campbell (ed.), The Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia (London and Portland, Or: Frank Cass, 2004), pp.83–96; Edward A. Alpers, ‘Flight to Freedom: Escape from Slavery among Bonded Africans in the Indian Ocean World’ in Campbell (ed.), Structure of Slavery, pp.51–68; Abdul Sheriff, ‘The Slave Trade and its Fallout in the Persian Gulf’ in Campbell (ed.), Abolition and Its Aftermath. Martin Klein, ‘Introduction: Modern European Expansion and Traditional Servitude in Africa and Asia’ in Klein (ed.), Breaking the Chains: Slavery, Bondage and Emancipation in Modern Africa and Asia (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), pp.11–12; Claude Meillassoux, The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold (Chicago: University of Chicago Press and London: Athlone Press, 1991), pp.9–10. Frederick Cooper, Plantation Slavery on the East Coast of Africa (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1977), p.154. Reid, ‘Introduction’, pp.25–6; Ahmed, ‘Benevolent Masters’. Reid, ‘Introduction’, pp.25–6; Joseph Miller, ‘A Theme in Variations: A Historical Schema of Slaving in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean Regions’ in Campbell (ed.), Structure of Slavery, pp.169–94. Suzanne Miers, ‘Slavery and the Slave Trade in Saudi Arabia and the Arab States on the Persian Gulf 1921–1963’ in Campbell (ed.), Abolition and Its Aftermath. Contribution in this volume by Janet Hoskins. Indrani Chatterjee, Gender, Slavery and Law in Colonial India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999), p.234. Boomgaard, ‘Human Capital’. Alpers, ‘Flight to Freedom’; Reid, ‘Introduction’, p.16. Richard Allen, ‘The Mascarene Slave-Trade and Labor Migration in the Indian Ocean during the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries’ in Campbell (ed.), Structure of Slavery, pp.33–50; Alpers, ‘Flight to Freedom’; Nigel Worden, ‘Indian Ocean Slavery and its Demise in the Cape Colony’ in Campbell (ed.), Abolition and Its Aftermath; see also Reid, ‘Introduction’, pp.3, 19. Reid, ‘Introduction’, p.15. Meillassoux, Anthropology of Slavery. Clare Anderson, ‘The Bel Ombre Rebellion: Indian convicts in Mauritius, 1815–53’ in Campbell (ed.), Abolition and Its Aftermath. Keya Dasgupta, ‘Plantation Labor in the Brahmapura Valley: Regional Enclaves in a Colonial Context, 1881–1921’ in Campbell (ed.), Abolition and Its Aftermath. Castle, Hagan and Wells, ‘ “Unfree Labor” ’. Anderson, ‘The Bel Ombre Rebellion’; Dasgupta, ‘Plantation Labor’; Castle, Hagan and Wells, ‘Unfree Labor’; Gwyn Campbell, ‘Slavery and Fanompoana: The Structure of Forced Labour in Imerina (Madagascar), 1790–1861, Journal of African History, 29, 2 (1988), pp.463–86. See e.g. contribution by Suzanne Miers. Castle, Hagan and Wells, ‘Unfree Labor’; Ahmed, ‘Benevolent Masters’. This same point was made by Jan-Georg Deutsch, ‘Absence of Evidence is No Proof. Slave Resistance under German Colonial Rule in East Africa,’ paper presented at the IC/ULBR. Kim, Bok-Rae, ‘Korean Nobi Resistance under the Chosun Dynasty (1392–1910)’ in this volume. Suzanne Miers, ‘Slave Rebellion and Resistance in the Aden Protectorate in the Mid- Twentieth Century’, in this volume. Reid, ‘Introduction’, pp.13, 25–6. Karine Delaye, ‘Slavery and Colonial Representations in Indochina from the Second Half of the Nineteenth to the Early Twentieth Century’ in Campbell (ed.), Structure of Slavery, pp.129–42; Gwyn Campbell, ‘Madagascar and the Slave Trade, 1810–1895’, Journal of African History, 22 (1981), p.224. Sheriff, ‘The Slave Trade and its Fallout’; Behnaz Mirzai Asl, ‘Identity, Cultural Transformation, and the African Diaspora in Iran,’ paper presented to the symposium, ‘Africans Across the Indian Ocean,’ Spelman College, Atlanta, April 2004; Ahmed, ‘Benevolent Masters’. Gwyn Campbell, ‘Abolition and its Aftermath in Madagascar, 1877–1949’ in Campbell (ed.), Abolition and Its Aftermath; Campbell, ‘Crisis of Faith and Colonial Conquest. The Impact of Famine and Disease in late nineteenth-century Madagascar’, Cahiers d'Études Africaines, 32, (3)127 (1992), pp.409–53. Kim, Bok-Rae, ‘Nobi: A Korean System of Slavery’ in Campbell (ed.), Structure of Slavery, pp.155–68; James Francis Warren, ‘Chinese Prostitution in Singapore: Recruitment and Brothel Organisation’ in Maria Jaschok and Suzanne Miers (eds.), Women and Chinese Patriarch: Submission, Servitude and Escape (London and New Jersey: Zed Books, 1994), pp.79–80. Kim, ‘Nobi’; Angela Schottenhammer, ‘Slaves in Late Imperial China, from the Late 18th to the Early 20th Centuries’ in Campbell (ed.), Structure of Slavery, pp.143–54; Sheriff, ‘The Slave Trade and its Fallout’. James Francis Warren, ‘The Structure of Slavery in the Sulu Zone in the Late 18th and 19th Centuries’ in Campbell (ed.), Structure of Slavery, pp.111–28. Wendy Fall, ‘Madagascar in Maryland and Virginia in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries’. Paper presented at the IC/ULBR Nigel Worden, ‘Revolt in Cape Colony Slave Society’ in Alpers, Campbell and Salman (eds.), Resisting Bondage; Fall, ‘Madagascar in Maryland and Virginia’; Megan Vaughan, Creating the Creole Island: Slavery in Eighteenth Century Mauritius (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, forthcoming). Campbell, ‘Abolition and its Aftermath in Madagascar’; Ahmed, ‘Benevolent Masters’. Reid, ‘Introduction’, p.12. See e.g. Schottenhammer, ‘Slaves and Forms of Slavery’; Klein, ‘Introduction’, p.7. For Madagascar, see Gwyn Campbell, Brigandry and Revolt in Pre-Colonial Africa: Imperial Madagascar, 1750–1900 (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, forthcoming), ch.7; for Australia see Castle, Hagan and Wells, ‘Unfree Labor’. Boomgaard, ‘Human Capital’; Worden, ‘Indian Ocean Slavery’. Schottenhammer, ‘Slaves and Forms of Slavery’; Kim, ‘Nobi’; see also Michael Salman, ‘Colonialism, Nationalism and the Meaning of Slavery: the Genealogy of “an Insult to the American Government and to the Filipino People” ’ in Campbell (ed.), Abolition and Its Aftermath. Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp.234, 238–9; Klein, ‘Introduction’, pp.10–11; Maurice Bloch, ‘Modes of Production and Slavery in Madagascar’, in Watson (ed.), Asian and African Systems of Slavery, pp.110–12; Campbell, ‘Abolition and its Aftermath in Madagascar’; Campbell, ‘Madagascar and the Slave Trade’; Campbell, ‘Unfree Labor, Slavery and Protest in Imperial Madagascar’ in Alpers, Campbell and Salman (eds.), Resisting Bondage. Miller, ‘Theme in Variations’; Goody, ‘Slavery in Time and Space’, pp.20–21. For serfs, see e.g. Kim, ‘Nobi’; Klein, ‘Introduction’, pp.5–6; for pawns, see Paul E. Lovejoy and Toyin Falola (eds.), Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2003); and for ‘mui tsai’ see Watson, ‘Transactions in People: The Chinese Market in Slaves, Servants, and Heirs’ in Watson (ed.), Asian and African Systems of Slavery, pp.240–45. Kopytoff and Miers, ‘African Slavery’, pp.10–11. Watson, ‘Transactions in People’, pp.227–30. See e.g. Boomgaard, ‘Human Capital’. Goody, ‘Slavery in Time and Space’, pp.21, 32. Ahmed, ‘Benevolent Masters’. For a broader reading of women's reproductive household labor, see Margaret Strobel, ‘Slavery and Reproductive Labor in Mombasa,’ in Claire C. Robertson and Martin A. Klein (eds.), Women and Slavery in Africa (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983), pp.111–29. See Francesca Declich, ‘Unfree Labour, Forced Labour and Resistance among the Zigula of the Lower Juba’ in Alpers, Campbell and Salman (eds.), Resisting Bondage. Ahmed, ‘Benevolent Masters’. Suzanne Miers, ‘Slavery: A Question of Definition’ in Campbell (ed.), Structure of Slavery, pp.1–16; see also David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), pp.70–72, 110–11, 289–97. Boomgaard, ‘Human Capital’; Miers, ‘Slavery and the Slave Trade’; Salman, ‘Colonialism, Nationalism and the Meaning of Slavery’. Kim, Bok-Rae, ‘Korean Nobi Resistance’. Suzanne Miers, ‘Slave Rebellion’. Anderson, ‘The Bel Ombre Rebellion’; Richard Allen, ‘A Serious and Alarming Daily Evil: Marronage and Its Legacy in Mauritius and the Colonial Plantation World’, in this volume. Edward A. Alpers, ‘The Idea of Marronage: Reflections on Literature and Politics in Reunion’, in this volume. Alpers, ‘Flight to Freedom’; see also Allen F. Isaacman, Mozambique: The Africanization of a European Institution, The Zambesi Prazos, 1750–1902 (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1972), pp.107–8; Campbell, Brigandry and Revolt. Kim, ‘Nobi’. Richard Allen, ‘A Serious and Alarming Daily Evil’. Ibid. Castle, Hagan and Wells, ‘Unfree Labor’. Worden, ‘Revolt in Cape Colony Slave Society’; Shigeru Sato, ‘Forced Laborers and their Resistance in Java under Japanese Military Rule, 1942–1945’ in Alpers, Campbell and Salman (eds.), Resisting Bondage. Isabelle Denis, ‘Forced Labour and the Mayotte Revolt of 1856’ in Alpers, Campbell and Salman (eds.), Resisting Bondage. See Asl, ‘Slave Emancipation in Iran: Gender and Freedom’, paper presented at the IC/ULBR. Worden, ‘Revolt in Cape Colony Slave Society’. Allen, ‘A Serious and Alarming Daily Evil’. See Vaughan, ‘Maroons and Masquerade: Mauritius in the Eighteenth Century,’ paper presented at the IC/ULBR; Allen, Slaves, Freedmen, and Indentured Laborers, pp.46, 50–51. See also Declich, ‘Unfree Labour’. Warren, ‘Structure of Slavery’. See, e.g., Charles Camara, ‘The Siddis of Uttara Kannada: History, Identity and Change among African Descendants in Contemporary Karnataka’, in Amy Catlin-Jairazbhoy and Edward A. Alpers (eds.), Sidis and Scholars: Essays on African Indians (Delhi: Rainbow Publishers/Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 2004), pp.100–101. Miers, ‘Slavery and the Slave Trade’; Martin Klein, ‘The Emancipation of Slaves in the Indian Ocean’ in Campbell (ed.), Abolition and Its Aftermath; Campbell, ‘Abolition and its Aftermath in Madagascar’; Omar Eno, ‘Abolition and its Impact on the Benadir Coast’ in Campbell (ed.), Abolition and Its Aftermath; Alpers, ‘Flight to Freedom’; see also Gwyn Campbell, ‘The Menalamba Revolt and Brigandry in Imperial Madagascar, 1820–1897’, International Journal of African Historical Studies 24, 2 (1991), pp.259–91; Goody, ‘Slavery in Time and Space’, p.29; Luísa Martins, ‘Esclavage et main-d'œuvre forcée d'après des sources orals recueillies dans la province de Nampulam, Mozambioque’, paper presented at the IC/ULBR; for comparisons in the Americas, see Richard Price (ed.), Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas, 3rd edn (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996). Alpers, ‘Flight to Freedom’; Declich, ‘Unfree Labour’; see also Eno, ‘ “Gosha/Heer-Goleet” [people of the forest]: Runaway Slaves in the Juba Valley of Southern Somalia’, paper presented at the IC/ULBR; Suzanne Miers and Martin Klein, ‘Introduction’ to Miers and Klein (eds.), Slavery and Colonial Rule in Africa (London: Frank Cass, 1999), pp.6–7. Deutsch, ‘Absence of Evidence’. For the full study, see Deutsch, ‘Slavery under German Colonial Rule in East Africa, c.1860–1914,’ Habilitationsschrift, Humboldt University at Berlin, October 2000. Deutsch, ‘Absence of Evidence’. See also Ahmed, ‘Benevolent Masters’. Campbell, Brigandry. Chauhan, Africans in India; Shanti Sadiq Ali, The African Dispersal in the Deccan (Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 1996); Campbell, ‘Madagascar and the Slave Trade’, p.209; Campbell, ‘Slavery and Fanompoana’. Alan Fisher, ‘Zanj’ in Paul Finkelman and Joseph C. Miller (eds.), Macmillan Encyclopaedia of World Slavery (New York: Macmillan Reference USA Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1998) vol.II, p.967; Alexandre Popovic, The Revolt of African Slaves in Iraq in the 3rd/9th Century (Princeton: Markus Weiner, 1999), p.22. Denis, ‘Forced Labour and the Mayotte Revolt’. Allen, ‘A Serious and Alarming Daily Evil’; Kim, ‘Korean Nobi Resistance’. Allen, ‘A Serious and Alarming Daily Evil’. Declich, ‘Unfree Labour’. Worden, ‘Revolt in Cape Colony Slave Society’; Denis, ‘Forced Labour and the Mayotte Revolt’. Eric Jennings, ‘Forced Labor in Madagascar under Vichy, 1940–42: Autarky, Requisitions, and Resistance on the ‘Red Island’ in Alpers, Campbell and Salman (eds.), Resisting Bondage; Knight, ‘Sugar and Servility’. Martins, ‘Esclavage et main-d'œuvre forcée’. Worden, ‘Revolt in Cape Colony Slave Society’. Campbell, ‘Unfree Labor, Slavery and Protest’. Declich, ‘Unfree Labour’. See e.g. Sato, ‘Forced Laborers’; Knight, ‘Sugar and Servility’; Campbell, ‘Unfree Labor, Slavery and Protest’; and Ahmed, ‘Benevolent Masters’. Sato, ‘Forced Laborers’; Suzanne Miers, Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Pattern (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2003), pp.66–86, 174–9, 239–53, 300–303. Worden, ‘Revolt in Cape Colony Slave Society’; Jennings, ‘Forced Labor in Madagascar’; Campbell, ‘Unfree Labor, Slavery and Protest’; see also Knight, ‘Sugar and Servility’; Gwyn Campbell, ‘Coffee Production in Madagascar’ in William Gervase Clarence-Smith and Steven Topik (eds.), Coffee under Colonialism and Post-Colonialism: The Global Coffee Economy in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, 1500–1989 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), pp.67–99. Campbell, ‘Abolition and its Aftermath in Madagascar’; Klein, ‘Emancipation of Slaves’; Timothy Derek Fernyhough, ‘Serfs, Slaves and Shefta: Modes of Production in Southern Ethiopia from the Late Nineteenth Century to 1941’, PhD, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1986. Watson, ‘Transactions in People’, p.245. W.G. Clarence Smith, ‘Islamic Attitudes towards the Abolition of the Slave Trade and Slavery in the Indian Ocean, c1800–c1940’ in Campbell (ed.), Abolition and Its Aftermath. Clarence Smith, ‘Islamic Attitudes’. Ibid.; Behnaz Mirzai, ‘The Shari'a and the Anti-Slave Trade “Farman” of 1848 in Iran’ in Campbell (ed.), Abolition and Its Aftermath; Abdul Sheriff, Slaves, Spices & Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African Commercial Empire into the World Economy, 1770–1873 (London: James Currey, 1987), pp.223–35. Kim, ‘Nobi’. Klein, ‘Emancipation of Slaves’. Campbell, ‘Abolition and its Aftermath in Madagascar’. Miers, ‘Slave Rebellion’. See e.g. Worden, ‘Indian Ocean Slavery’. William Gervase Clarence-Smith (ed.), The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade (London: Frank Cass, 1989), pp.4–5. Anderson, ‘The Bel Ombre Rebellion’; see also Samuel Pasfield Oliver, ‘Sir Robert Townsend Farquhar and the Malagasy Slave Trade’, Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine 15 (1891), pp.319–21; Anthony J. Barker, Slavery and Anti-Slavery in Mauritius, 1810–33 (Houndsmills and London: Macmillan/New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996). Timothy Walker, ‘Abolishing the Slave Trade in Portuguese India: Documentary Evidence of Popular and Official Resistance to Crown Policy, 1842–60’, in this volume. Klein, ‘Emancipation of Slaves’; Indrani Chatterjee, ‘Abolition by Denial? Slavery in South Asia after 1843’ in Campbell (ed.), Abolition and Its Aftermath. Walker, ‘Abolishing the Slave Trade’, this volume. Denis, ‘Forced Labour and the Mayotte Revolt’; Gwyn Campbell, ‘The East African Slave Trade, 1861–1895: The “Southern” Complex’, International Journal of Southern African Studies, 21, 4 (1988), pp.1–27. Clarence Smith, ‘Islamic Attitudes’; Salman, ‘Colonialism, Nationalism and the Meaning of Slavery’. Eno, ‘Abolition and its Impact on the Benadir Coast’; Declich, ‘Unfree Labour’. Suzanne Miers and Martin Klein, ‘Introduction’ to Miers and Klein (eds.), Slavery and Colonial Rule in Africa (London: Frank Cass, 1999), p.6; see also Kopytoff and Miers, ‘African Slavery’ pp.73–4. Michael Salman, ‘Resisting Slavery in the Philippines: Ambivalent Domestication and the Reversibility of Comparisons’, in this volume; Idem, The Embarrassment of Slavery: Controversies over Bondage and Nationalism in the American Colonial Philippines (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001). Miers, ‘Slavery and the Slave Trade’; see also Kopytoff and Miers, ‘African Slavery’, p.72; Miers and Klein, ‘Introduction’, pp.1–2, 4–5. Klein, ‘Emancipation of Slaves’; Boomgaard, ‘Human Capital’; Delaye, ‘Slavery and Colonial Representations in Indochina’ see also Reid, ‘Introduction’, p.34; Klein, ‘Introduction’, p.24. Miers, ‘Slave Rebellion’; Idem, ‘Slavery and the Slave Trade’; Asl, ‘The Shari'a’; Klein, ‘Emancipation of Slaves’; Clarence Smith, ‘Islamic Attitudes’.