Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

Jihadist Strategic Debates before 9/11

2008; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 31; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/10576100701879612

1521-0731

Steven Brooke,

Jewish and Middle Eastern Studies

Abstract In 2004 Lia and Hegghammer observed a new genre of "jihadi strategic studies," characterized by secular-rational analyses, familiarity with Western sources, and a willingness to self-critique. Through four case studies (the strategies of takfir groups in 1960/1970s Egypt, the far enemy–near enemy debate, the differing revolutionary modes of Al Jihad and Gamaa Islamiyya, and the decision by Al Qaeda to target the West) this article finds that many of the traits observed by Lia and Hegghammer have deep roots among jihadist thinkers. This article will interest those who study terrorism, strategy, and the history of Islamic militancy. The author specifically thanks Ghassan Schbley, Thomas Hegghammer, Peter Mandaville, Shaul Bakhash, and the anonymous reviewers for their comments. Notes 1. Among the better known are the 1,600-page opus of Abu Musab al Suri, Dawat al Muqawama al Islamiyya al Alamiyya (Global Islamic Resistance Call), (N.P., 2004) and the works by the Saudi theorist Yusuf al Ayiri, including Mustaqbal al Iraq wa-l Jazirah al Arabiyya Ba'd Suqut Baghdad (the Future of the Arabian Peninsula After the Fall of Baghdad), (N.P., 2003), Amrika wal Su'ud ila al Hawiyyah (America and the Advance Toward the Abyss), (N.P, 2003?), and Silsilat al-Harb al-Salibiyyah 'ala al-'Iraq (The Continuation of the Crusader War on Iraq), (N.P., 2002?). Other strategic studies have been translated into English including Abu Bakar Naji, The Management of Savagery: The Most Critical Stage Through Which the Umma Will Pass, Trans. William R. McCants (with the support of the John M. Olin Institute at Harvard University), (N.P., N.D.); and Muhammad Khalil al Hakayma, The Myth of Delusion, (London: al Maqreze Center, N.D.). For the best analysis of the flowering of jihadist strategic thought after Iraq, see Thomas Hegghammer, "Global Jihadism after the Iraq War," Middle East Journal 60(1) (Winter 2006). See also the fine journalistic account of Lawrence Wright, "The Terror Web," The New Yorker, 2 August 2004. 2. Brynjar Lia and Thomas Hegghammer, "Jihadi Strategic Studies: The Alleged al Qaeda Policy Study Preceding the Madrid Bombings," Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 27 (2004), pp. 356–357. 3. An important exception to this observation is Abu Musab al Suri, who has consistently used a secular-rational analysis, including a reliance on Western strategic thinkers. This is convincingly demonstrated in Brynjar Lia's important book, Architect of Global Jihad (London: Hurst, 2007). 4. A key study of the early strategies of the jihadist groups, including the Military Technical Academy Group, the Society of Muslims, and al Jihad is Abdel Aziz Ramadan, "Fundamentalist Influence in Egypt: The Strategies of the Muslim Brotherhood and the Takfir Groups," in Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies, and Militance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993). Of more recent vintage are the studies by David Cook (Pragmatic Jihadi Movements, West Point, NY: Combating Terrorism Center, 2006), which examined the historical examples of four early jihadist movements based on their mentions in al Suri's Dawat al Muqawama al Islamiyya al Alamiyya (note 1). Fawwaz Gerges' The Far Enemy: Why Jihad Went Global (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) is also a study of jihadist strategy before 9/11, yet it is mostly concerned with the ramifications of Al Qaeda's decision to target the "far enemy," in this case the United States, on the global jihadist landscape. Lawrence Wright's The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11 (New York: Knopf, 2006), see especially pp. 37–59, also contains important details. 5. Charles J. Adams, "Kufr," in John L. Esposito, ed., The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World Volume 2 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 439–443. 6. Robert S. Leiken and Steven Brooke, "The Moderate Muslim Brotherhood," Foreign Affairs (March/April 2007), pp. 108–11. 7. Zainab al Ghazali, Return of the Pharaoh: Memoir in Nasir's Prison, Trans. Mokrane Guezzou (Leicester: The Islamic Foundation, 1994), p. 29. 8. See, for instance, Sayyid Qutb, Islam and Universal Peace, Trans. Mahmoud Abu Saud et al. (Indianapolis, IN: American Trust Publications, 1977), p. 10; Sayyid Qutb, Milestones (Cedar Rapids, IA: Mother Mosque Foundation, N.D.), p. 25; Sayyid Qutb, In the Shade of the Quran Vol. VIII (Surah al-Tawbah), Trans. Adil Salahi (Leicester: The Islamic Foundation & Islamonline.net, 2003), p. 124; Sayyid Qutb, This Religion of Islam, Trans. "Islamdust" (Palo Alto, CA: Al Manar Press, 1967), p. 16; Sayyid Qutb, In the Shade of the Quran Vol. III (Surah al-Nisa), Trans. Adil Salahi and Ashur Shamis (Leicester: The Islamic Foundation, 2001), pp. 192–193; Sayyid Qutb, In the Shade of the Quran Vol. IV (Surah al-Maidah), Trans. Adil Salahi and Ashur Shamis (Leicester: The Islamic Foundation & Islamonline.net, 2001), p. 237; Sayyid Qutb, This Religion of Islam, Trans. "Islamdust" (Palo Alto, CA: Al Manar Press, 1967), p. 22. See also Sayed Khatab "Hakimiyyah and Jahiliyyah in the Thought of Sayyid Qutb," Middle Eastern Studies 38(3) (July 2002), p. 145 and Ahmad S. Moussalli, Radical Islamic Fundamentalism: The Ideological and Political Discourse of Sayyid Qutb (Beirut, Lebanon: American University of Beirut Press, 1995), p. 151. 9. Saad Eddin Ibrahim, "Anatomy of Egypt's Militant Islamic Groups," International Journal of Middle East Studies 12(4) (December 1980), p. 441. 10. According to a quote in the Muslim Brotherhood's official newspaper al Daw'a, January 1977. Quoted in Hamied N. Ansari, "The Islamic Militants in Egyptian Politics," International Journal of Middle East Studies 16(1) (March 1984), p. 140. 11. Hasan al Hudaybi, Du'a la Quda' (Preachers, not Judges) (Cairo: Dar al Tawzi'a wa al Nashr al Islami, 1977 ed.), p. 52 (in Arabic). For more on Hasan al Hudaybi, see Barbara Zollner, "Prison Talk: The Muslim Brotherhood's Internal Struggle During Gamal Abdel Nasser's Persecution, 1954–1971," International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 39 (2007), passim. 12. Nemat Guenena, The Jihad: An Islamic Alternative in Egypt (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1986), p. 38. See also John O. Voll, "Fundamentalism in the Sunni Arab World: Egypt and the Sudan," in Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms Observed (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), p. 374. 13. Yusuf al Qaradawi, Islamic Awakening Between Rejection and Extremism, (Herndon, VA: International Institute of Islamic Thought, N.D.,), pp. 62–63. 14. Suha Taji- Farouki, A Fundamental Quest: Hizb ut Tahrir and the Search for the Islamic Caliphate (London: Grey Seal Books, 1996), pp. 167–168. 15. Saad Eddin Ibrahim, "Anatomy of Egypt's Militant Islamic Groups," International Journal of Middle East Studies 12(4) (December 1980), p. 425. 16. Suha Taji- Farouki, A Fundamental Quest: Hizb ut Tahrir and the Search for the Islamic Caliphate (London: Grey Seal Books, 1996), p. 79. This has been confirmed by a former Hizb ut Tahrir member in Europe. 17. Hasan al-Banna, The Concept of Allah in the Islamic Creed, Trans. Sharif Ahmad Khan (New Dehli: Adam Publishers, 2000, rev. ed.), pp. 65–66. 18. Gilles Kepel, Muslim Extremism in Egypt: The Prophet and the Pharaoh, Trans. Jon Rothschild (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2003), p. 74 and David Zeidan, "Radical Islam in Egypt: A Comparison of Two Groups," Middle East Review of International Affairs 3(3) (September 1999), p. 2. 19. Yet after Mustapha's death a number of jailed members of the Military Technical Academy Group joined Jamaat al Muslimun. See Saad Eddin Ibrahim, "Anatomy of Egypt's Militant Islamic Groups," International Journal of Middle East Studies 12(4) (December 1980), p. 436. 20. Aadel Hamoudah, "Al Mouhakamat: Shukri Mustapha Yatahadath 'an Nafsih" (the Judgment: Shukri Moustafa Speaks About Himself) Ruz al Yusuf, 18 August 1986 (in Arabic). 21. Ibid. 22. Rajab Madkur, Al Takfir wal Hijra Wajhan Li Wajh (al Takfir wal Hijra Face to Face) (Cairo: Maktabat al Din al Qayyim, 1985), p. 160. (in Arabic). 23. See Fathi Shiqaqi, Al A'mal al Kamila (The Complete Works) (Cairo: Markaz Yafa lil Dirasat wal Abhath, 1997). See also the theological justification provided by a Palestinian Islamic Jihad sheikh in As'ad Bayyud Tamimi, Al Quran wal Sunnah wa Hatmiyat Izalat Dawlat al Yahud (It is an Imperative Religious Duty to Eliminate the County of the Jews) (N.P, 1982?). 24. Fawaz A. Gerges, The Far Enemy: Why Jihad Went Global (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), p. 8. 25. Nemat Guenena, The Jihad: An Islamic Alternative in Egypt (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1986). 26. Hisham Mubarak, Souhail Shadoud, and Steve Tamari, "What Does the Gama'a Islamiyya Want? An Interview with Tal'at Fu'ad Qasim," Middle East Report (January–March 1996), p. 40 27. Gilles Kepel, Muslim Extremism in Egypt: The Prophet and the Pharaoh, Trans. Jon Rothschild (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), p. 207. See also Malika Zeghal, "Religion and Politics in Egypt: The Ulema of al Azhar, Radical Islam, and the State (1952–94)," International Journal of Middle East Studies 31(3) (August 1999), p. 39. 28. David Zeidan, "Radical Islam in Egypt: A Comparison of Two Groups," Middle East Review of International Affairs 3(3) (September 1999), p. 3. Faraj, however, denied that Rahman was the spiritual leader of the group. See Nemat Guenena, The Jihad: An Islamic Alternative in Egypt (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1986), p. 60. This contradicts significant evidence to the contrary. 29. Johannes J.G. Jansen, The Neglected Duty: The Creed of Sadat's Assassins and Islamic Resurgence in the Middle East (New York: MacMillan, 1986), p. 166. 30. Ibid., p. 175. 31. Ibid., p. 179. 32. Cf. Ibn Taymiyya on Public and Private Law in Islam or Public Policy in Islamic Jurisprudence, Omar A. Farrukh, trans. (Beirut: Khayats, 1966), p. 146 and Thomas Raff, Remarks on an Anti- Mongol Fatwa by Ibn Taimiya (Leiden: N.P., 1973), passim. 33. See Abd al-Fattah Muhammed El-Awaisi, The Muslim Brothers and the Palestine Question, 1928–1947 (London: I.B. Tauris Academic Studies, 1998), pp. 16–18. See also Brynjar Lia, The Society of the Muslim Brothers in Egypt: The Rise of an Islamic Mass Movement, 1928–1942 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), p. 235. 34. Nemat Guenena, The Jihad: An Islamic Alternative in Egypt (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1986), p. 45. 35. Jansen, The Neglected Duty, p. 192. 36. Ibid., p. 192. It is unknown how original this formulation was. In a 1979 trial Husni Abbu, the Muslim Brotherhood's military commander in Aleppo, answered a prosecution question on the aims of his group "only when we shall have finished purging our country of godlessness shall we turn against Israel." Emmanuel Sivan, Radical Islam: Medieval Theology and Modern Politics (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), p. 19. 37. Jansen, The Neglected Duty, p. 193. It is interesting that despite the theological arguments that gird the document, Faraj never cites a Quranic verse, 9:123, which could have grounded his case to fight the near enemy solidly on religious grounds. 9:123 reads in part: "fight those of the unbelievers who are near to you and let them find in you hardness." A possible explanation for the absence of this verse may be that Faraj was most interested in the strategic calculations. 38. Jansen, The Neglected Duty, p. 187. 39. Ibid., p. 176. 40. Nemat Guenena, The Jihad: An Islamic Alternative in Egypt (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1986), p. 56, n. 18. This has since been confirmed by those who were present at the beginnings of these groups; see Muhammad Salah al-Din, "Interview with Majdi Salim," Al Hayat (UK), 16 October 1993; and "Interview with Kamal al Sayyid Habib," Al Sharq al Awsat, 26 October 2001. 41. Jansen, The Neglected Duty, p. 203. 42. Adel Hammoudeh, "al Aanef Saad Ila al Qouma" ("Violence Rises to the Top,") Ruz al Yusuf, 8 September 1986. 43. Hisham Mubarak, Souhail Shadoud, and Steve Tamari, "What Does the Gama'a Islamiyya Want? An Interview with Tal'at Fu'ad Qasim," Middle East Report (January–March 1996), p. 42. 44. Lawrence Wright, "The Man Behind Bin Laden," The New Yorker, 16 September 2002; See also Nabil Abu Stayt, "Egypt's Islamic Jihad Rises," Al Sharq al Awsat, 6 February 2000. 45. Mubarak et al., "What Does the Gama'a Islamiyya Want?", p. 43. 46. Mary Anne Weaver, "The Trail of the Sheikh," The New Yorker, April 12, 1993, pg. 89. 47. Ibid., p. 77. See also Richard Bernstein, "Trail of the Sheik," The New York Times, 8 January 1995. 48. Gilles Kepel, Muslim Extremism in Egypt: The Prophet and the Pharaoh, Trans. Jon Rothschild (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), p. 207. 49. Weaver, "The Trail of the Sheikh," p. 77. 50. Malika Zeghal, "Religion and Politics in Egypt: The Ulema of al Azhar, Radical Islam, and the State (1952– 94)," International Journal of Middle East Studies 31(3) (August 1999), p. 392. 51. Omar Ahmed Ali Abdurrahman, The Present Rulers and Islam: Are they Muslims or Not? Trans. Umar Johnstone (London: Al Firdous, 1990), p. 7. 52. "Al Jihad in Egypt: What Is It? How Does It Think? What Does It Want?" al 'Ahd, January 17, 1987. 53. Ibid. 54. Dr. Naajeh Ibrahim, Asim Abdul Maajid, and Essam ud-Deen Darbaalah, In Pursuit of Allah's Pleasure, (London: Al Firdous, Ltd., 1997), p. 135. 55. Ibid., p. 110. 56. Ibid., p. 48. 57. For more information of the hisba and its development over time, see Michael Cook, Commanding Right and Forbidding Wrong in Islamic Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001). 58. Hisham Tantawi, "Islamic Leader Criticizes al Azhar Sheikh," Al Ahrar (Cairo), 14 January 1989. 59. "Dr. Omar Abdel Rahman to Nida'ul Islam: Muslims Should Continue to Call to Allah and Struggle Relentlessly for His Sake," Nida'ul Islam, No. 16 (December–January, 1996–97). 60. "Who are the Men Known as the Arab Afghans?" Al Ahram (Egypt), 14 April 1994. 61. Khalid Sharaf-al-Din, "Fundamentalists' Leaders Formed Bogus Organizations To Confuse the Security Organs," Al Sharq al Awsat, 7 March 1999. 62. Data comes from Heba Aziz, "Understanding Attacks on Tourists in Egypt," Tourism Management 16(2) (1995) and Salah Wahab, "Tourism and Terrorism: Synthesis of the Problem with Emphasis on Egypt," in A. Pizam and Y. Mansfeld, eds. Tourism, Crime, and Security Issues (London: Wiley and Sons, 1996). 63. Mary Anne Weaver, "Blowback," The Atlantic Monthly, May 1996. See also Robert I. Friedman, "The CIA and the Sheikh," The Village Voice, 30 March 1993. 64. Christopher Walker and Ben Macintyre, "Taped Sermons of Sheik Stir Up Violence in Egypt," The Times (UK), 20 March 1993. 65. Weaver, "The Trail of the Sheikh," p. 88. 66. Cited in Hesham al Awadi, In Pursuit of Legitimacy: The Muslim Brothers and Mubarak, 1982–2000 (London: Tauris Academic Studies, 2004), p. 154. See also the chart on that same page. 67. Susan Sachs, "Muslim Extremists Raise a Bold, Violent Challenge to Mubarak Government," The Houston Chronicle, 4 November 1992. 68. Jeffrey A. Nedoroscik, "Extremist Groups in Egypt," Terrorism and Political Violence 14(2) (Summer 2002), p. 49. 69. Cited in Awadi, In Pursuit of Legitimacy, p. 179. 70. Weaver, "The Trail of the Sheikh," p. 85. 71. Montasser al Zayyat, The Road to al Qaeda: The Story of Bin Laden's Right- Hand Man, Trans. Ahmed Fekry, (London: Pluto Press, 2004), pp. 30–34. 72. Nimrod Raphaeli, "Muhammed Rabi al Zawahiri: The Making of an Arch Terrorist," Terrorism and Political Violence 14(2) (2002), p. 4. 73. Adnan S. Musallam, From Secularism to Jihad: Sayyid Qutb and the Foundations of Radical Islamism (Westport, CO: Praeger, 2005), pp. 186–188. 74. Ayman al Zawahiri, Knights Under the Prophet's Banner: Meditations on the Jihadist Movement, serialized by Al Sharq al Awsat in 11 parts from 2–13 December 2001, pt. 3. 75. Ibid. See also "Who are the Men Known as the Arab Afghans?" Al Ahram (Egypt), 14 April 1994. 76. Ibid., pt. 4. 77. Ibid. 78. Montasser al Zayyat, The Road to al Qaeda: The Story of Bin Laden's Right- Hand Man, Trans. Ahmed Fekry (London: Pluto Press, 2004), p. 43. 79. Zawahiri, Knights Under the Prophet's Banner, pt. 2. 80. Nimrod Raphaeli, "Muhammed Rabi al Zawahiri: The Making of an Arch Terrorist," Terrorism and Political Violence 14(2) (2002), p. 8. See also "Report on Egyptian Fundamentalists," Al Sharq al Awsat, 18 July 1999; Usamah Abd al Haqq, "Increasing Signs of Extraditing Islamist Leaders in Europe to Egypt," Al Majallah (Egypt), 2 December 2001; Abd al Latif al Manawi, "Interview with Ahmad Husayn Mustafa Ujayzah," Al Sharq al Awsat, 9 September 1999; and Nabil Abu Stayt, "Egypt's Islamic Jihad Rises," Al Sharq al Awsat, 6 February 2000. 81. "Suprises of the Vanguards of Conquest: The First Appearance of al Jihad Since the Assassination of al-Sadat," Al Musawwar (Egypt), 27 August 1993. 82. Ayman al Zawahiri, Knights Under the Prophet's Banner, pt. 2. See also "Who are the Men Known as the Arab Afghans?" Al Ahram (Egypt) 14 April 1994. 83. The author thanks Thomas Hegghammer for this observation. For more on the place of Taber's work in jihadist thought, see Brynjar Lia, Architect of Global Jihad (London: Hurst, 2007), pp. 225–226. 84. Robert Taber, The War of the Flea: Guerrilla Warfare in Theory and Practice (New York: Lyle Stuart, 1965), pp. 27–28. 85. Ayman al Zawahiri, Hasad al Murr: Al Ikhwan al Muslimeen fi Sittin Aman (The Bitter Harvest: The Muslim Brotherhood in Sixty Years) (N.P.: 1991–1992?), p. 54 (in Arabic). See also pp. 70–71. 86. "Interview with Ayman al Zawahiri," Al Arabi (Egypt), 22 November 1993. 87. Quoted in Montasser al Zayyat, The Road to al Qaeda: The Story of Bin Laden's Right- Hand Man, Trans. Ahmed Fekry (London: Pluto Press, 2004), p. 62. See also Brynjar Lia, Architect of Global Jihad (London: Hurst, 2007), p. 280 88. Ayman al Zawahiri, "Ibn Baaz bayn al Haq wal al Wahm (Bin Baz between Truth and Illusion)," al Mujahidoun, No. 11 (1995). (in Arabic). 89. Montasser al Zayyat, The Road to al Qaeda: The Story of Bin Laden's Right-Hand Man, Trans. Ahmed Fekry (London: Pluto Press, 2004), p. 63. 90. Muhammad Jamal Barut, "The Study of al Banna and Qutb's Ideas Causes Upheaval … al Zawahri Embodies the Islamic Extremism Phenomenon," Al-Bayan, (UAE), 14 November 2001 (in Arabic). Accessed from http://www.thisissyria.net. 91. Zawahiri, Knights Under the Prophet's Banner, pt. 6. 92. Khalid Sharif al Din, "Egypt's Islamic Group Moves Toward Establishing a Political Party," al Sharq al Awsat (UK), 3 March 1999. For more on the truce, see "Cairo Leaving Door Ajar to Respond to IG/Jihad Truce Initiative," Mideast Mirror, 15 August 1997, Diaa Rashwan, "Struggle Within the Ranks," Al Ahram (Egypt), 5 November 1998, and Khaled Dawoud, "Farewell to Arms," al Ahram (Egypt), 6 January 2000. 93. Muhammed al Shafi'i, "Al Qaeda's Secret Emails, Pt. 5," Al Sharq al Awsat, 15 December 2002. 94. Khaled Dawoud, "Divided on Violence," Al Ahram (Egypt), 4 January 2001. 95. For more on Abdullah Azzam, see Thomas Hegghammer, "Abdullah Azzam, l'mam du jihad," in Gilles Kepel, ed., Al-Qaida Dans le Texte (Paris: Proche Orient: 2005) and Bernard Rougier, Everyday Jihad (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007), p. 70–84. 96. Peter Bergen, The Osama Bin Laden I Know (New York: Free Press, 2006), p. 29. 97. "al Qaeda from Within: As Narrated by Abu Jandal, Bin Laden's Personal Guard," Serialized in 10 parts by Al Quds al Arabi from 20 March 2005 to 4 April 2005, pt. 4. 98. Personal communication with Israeli scholar Asaf Maliach, 19 April 2006. 99. For an account of the MAK's offices in the United States, see Steven Emerson, American Jihad: The Terrorists Living Among Us (New York: Free Press, 2002), p. 56. 100. Thomas Hegghammer, "Abdullah Azzam, l'mam du jihad," in Gilles Kepel, ed., Al-Qaida Dans le Texte (Paris: Proche Orient: 2005), in particular pp. 135–136. 101. Abdullah Azzam, "Open Letter to Every Muslim on Earth," Al Jihad, No. 4 (22 March 1985), pp. 22–26. 102. Abdullah Azzam, Defense of Muslim Lands (Azzam Publications, N.D.), p. 23. See also Al Jihad, No. 7 (June 1985). 103. Abdullah Azzam, "From Kabul to Jerusalem," Al Jihad, No. 52 (February–March 1989), n.p. 104. Edward A. Gargan, "Afghan War Incited Muslim Warriors into Global Action," The New York Times, 21 August 1993. See also Weaver, "The Trail of the Sheikh," p. 79. 105. Stephen Engelberg, "One Man and a Global Web of Violence," The New York Times, 14 January 2001. See also Thomas Hegghammer, "Abdullah Azzam, l'mam du jihad," in Gilles Kepel, ed., Al-Qaida Dans le Texte (Paris: Proche Orient: 2005), in particular pp. 135–136. 106. Weaver, "The Trail of the Sheikh," p. 73. 107. Lawrence Wright, "The Man Behind Bin Laden," The New Yorker, 16 September 2002. 108. Peter Bergen, The Osama Bin Laden I Know (New York: Free Press, 2006), p. 68. 109. Lawrence Wright, "The Man Behind Bin Laden," The New Yorker, 16 September 2002. See also Montasser al Zayyat, The Road to al Qaeda: The Story of Bin Laden's Right- Hand Man, Trans. Ahmed Fekry (London: Pluto Press, 2004), p. 88. 110. Peter Bergen, The Osama Bin Laden I Know (New York: Free Press, 2006), p. 69. 111. Jamil Ziabi, "The Legal Ideologue of al Qaeda Leader, Mussa al Qarni, Recalls the Stages of the Rise and Fall of the Islamic State Dream in Afghanistan, Pt. 2" Al Hayat (UK), 14 March 2006. 112. "The Story of the Arab Afghans from the Time of Arrival in Afghanistan until their Departure with the Taliban," pt. 5. See also Peter Bergen, The Osama Bin Laden I Know (New York: Free Press, 2006), p. 62. 113. Jason Burke, al Qaeda: Casting a Shadow of Terror (London: I.B. Tauris, 2003), p. 77. 114. Peter Bergen, The Osama Bin Laden I Know (New York: Free Press, 2006), p. 63. 115. "The Oldest Arab Afghan Talks to al Sharq al Awsat About His Career that Finally Landed Him in Prison in Saudi Arabia." 116. Abdel Bari Atwan, The Secret History of Al Qaeda (London: Saqi Books, 2006), p. 76. See also Jeffrey A. Nedoroscik, "Extremist Groups in Egypt," Terrorism and Political Violence 14(2) (Summer 2002), p. 62 and Anonymous (Michael Scheuer), Through Our Enemies Eyes: Osama Bin Laden, Radical Islam, and The Future of America (Washington, DC: Brasseys, 2002), pp. 93–95. 117. Abu Walid al Misri, "The Story of the Arab Afghans from the Time of Arrival in Afghanistan until their Departure with the Taliban," serialized by Al Sharq al Awsat in seven parts from 8–14 December 2004, pt. 7. 118. Peter Bergen, The Osama Bin Laden I Know (New York: Free Press, 2006), pp. 108–109. 119. Stephen Engelberg, "One Man and a Global Web of Violence," The New York Times, 14 January 2001. 120. Testimony of L'Houssaine Khertchou, United States of America vs. Osama Bin Laden, et al, U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York, S(7) 98 Cr. 1023, 29 March 2001, p. 4745. 121. Testimony of Jamal al Fadl, United States of America vs. Osama Bin Laden, et al, U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York, S(7) 98 Cr. 1023, 6 February 2001, p. 190. 122. Abu Walid al Misri, "The Story of the Arab Afghans from the Time of Arrival in Afghanistan until their Departure with the Taliban," serialized by Al Sharq al Awsat in seven parts from 8–14 December 2004, pt. 6. See also "al Qaeda from Within: As Narrated by Abu Jandal, Bin Laden's Personal Guard," Serialized in 10 parts by Al Quds al Arabi from 20 March 2005 to 4 April 2005, pt. 3; and Peter Bergen, The Osama Bin Laden I Know (New York: Free Press, 2006), pp. 108–109. 123. Cf. Osama Bin Laden, "Saudi Arabia Continues its War Against Islam and Its Scholars," 9 March 1995. This letter is in the HARMONY collection of the U.S. Department of Defense, designation AFGP-2002–003345. 124. Osama Bin Laden, "The Bosnia Tragedy and the Deception of the Servant of the Two Mosques," 11 August 1995. This letter is in the HARMONY collection of the U.S. Department of Defense, designation AFGP-2002–003345. 125. Robert Fisk, "Why We Reject the West—by the Saudi's Fiercest Arab Critic," The Independent (UK), 10 July 1996. 126. Osama Bin Laden, "Declaration of Jihad," 23 August 1996. This is the full version, as opposed to the edited version used in Messages to the World. This document is available at http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A4342–2001Sep21 127. "The Mujahid Osama Bin Laden Talks Exclusively to Nida'ul Islam about the New Powder Keg in the Middle East," Nida'ul Islam, No. 15 (October–November 1996). 128. Peter Arnett, "Interview with Osama Bin Laden," CNN, March 1997. 129. Osama Bin Laden et al., "Declaration of the World Islamic Front Against the Jews and Crusaders," 23 February 1998. In Bruce Lawrence, ed., Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama Bin Laden (London: Verso, 2005), p. 61. 130. "Egypt's Jihad Says Asked by Bin Laden to Turn Guns on U.S.," Agence France Presse, 24 February 1999. 131. "Bin-Ladin Took Advantage of the Situation of the Egyptian Jihad and Islamic Group Organizations To Impose His Control on Them and Form a World Front for 'Liberating the Holy Places'," Al Sharq al Awsat, 20 April 1999. 132. John Miller, "Interview with Osama Bin Laden," ABC News, May 1998. This particular question was not asked by Miller but by an Al Qaeda member to Bin Laden, which Miller and his crew recorded. 133. "al Qaeda from Within: As Narrated by Abu Jandal, Bin Laden's Personal Guard," Serialized in 10 parts by Al Quds al Arabi from 20 March 2005 to 4 April 2005, pt. 8. 134. Abu Walid al Misri, "The Story of the Arab Afghans from the Time of Arrival in Afghanistan until their Departure with the Taliban," serialized by Al Sharq al Awsat in seven parts from 8–14 December 2004, pt. 2. This appears to be an emerging critical narrative of 9/11 inside the jihadist community. 135. Abu Huthayfa, "A Memo to the Honorable Sheikh Abu Abdullah (Bin Laden)," 20 June 2000, p. 39. This letter is in the HARMONY collection of the U.S. Department of Defense, designation AFGP-2002–003251. 136. "al Qaeda from Within: As Narrated by Abu Jandal, Bin Laden's Personal Guard," Serialized in 10 parts by Al Quds al Arabi from 20 March 2005 to 4 April 2005, pt. 4. 137. Ibid., pt. 5. 138. Abu Musab al Suri, Dawat al Muqawama al Islamiyya al Alamiyya, (N.P., 2004), pp. 711–712. 139. Ayman al Zawahiri, Knights Under the Prophet's Banner, pt. 11. 140. Muhammad al-Shafi'i, "Fundamentalist Sources: Al Zawahiri Ousted Following Many Complaints in the Jihad Organization's Shura Council: Said the Call to Kill the Americans Contravenes the Principles of Islamic Shari'ah and the Organization's Strategy," Al Sharq al Awsat, 27 January 2000. 141. Muhammad al-Shafi'i, "Fundamentalist Sources: Al Zawahiri Ousted Following Many Complaints in the Jihad Organization's Shura Council: Said the Call to Kill the Americans Contravenes the Principles of Islamic Shari'ah and the Organization's Strategy," Al Sharq al Awsat, 27 January 2000. 142. Alan Cullison and Andrew Higgins, "Files Found: A Computer in Kabul Yields a Chilling Array of al Qaeda Memos," The Wall Street Journal, 31 December 2001. 143. Muhammed al Shafi'i, "Al Qaeda's Secret Emails, Pt. 4," Al Sharq al Awsat, 15 December 2002. See also Alan Cullison, "Inside al Qaeda's Hard Drive," The Atlantic Monthly, September 2004, p. 67. 144. Andrew Higgins and Alan Cullison, "Terrorist's Odyssey: Saga of Dr. Zawahiri Illuminates Roots of al Qaeda Terror," The Wall Street Journal, 2 July 2002. 145. Muhammed al Shafi'i, "Al Qaeda's Secret Emails, Pt. 2," Al Sharq al Awsat, 14 December 2002. 146. Ibid. 147. Andrew Higgins and Alan Cullison, "Friend or Foe: The Story of a Traitor to al Qaeda," The Wall Street Journal, 20 December 2002. 148. Alan Cullison, "Inside al Qaeda's Hard Drive," The Atlantic Monthly, September 2004, p. 64. 149. See, for instance Rohan Gunaratna, Inside al Qaeda: Global Network of Terror (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), p. 26; The Road to al Qaeda: The Story of Bin Laden's Right- Hand Man, p. 98; The Secret History of Al Qaeda, p. 50; Gilles Kepel, Islam and The West: The War for Muslim Minds (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), p. 87; Testimony of L'Houssaine Khertchou, United States of America vs. Osama Bin Laden, et al, U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York, S(7) 98 Cr. 1023, 26 February 2001, p. 1461; Philippe Naughton, "The Man They Call Bin Laden's Brain," The Times (UK), 4 August 2005; and Jamil Ziabi, "The Legal Ideologue of al Qaeda Leader, Mussa al Qarni, Recalls the Stages of the Rise and Fall of the Islamic State Dream in Afghanistan, Pt. 2" Al Hayat (UK), 14 March 2006. 150. "The Man Behind Bin Laden." "Terrorist's Odyssey: Saga of Dr. Zawahiri Illuminates Roots of al Qaeda Terror." 151. Fawaz A. Gerges, The Far Enemy: Why Jihad Went Global (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), p. 121. 152. Diaa Rashwan, "Struggle Within the Ranks," Al Ahram (Egypt), 5 November 1998. 153. Muhammed al Shafi'i, "Al Qaeda's Secret Emails, Pt. 3," Al Sharq al Awsat, 15 December 2002. 154. Diaa Rashwan, "Struggle Within the Ranks." 155. Available for download at http://www.geocities.com/suporters_of_sharia/audio.htm 156. William McCants et al., The Militant Ideology Atlas (West Point, NY: USMC Combating Terrorism Center, 2006). 157. "An Encounter Behind the Apostates' Bars in Jordan," an interview with Shaykh Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi, Nida'ul Islam, conducted in two parts, in the December–January 1997–1998 (#21) and February–March 1998 (#22) issues. This is from part 2.