The American Geographical Society's Map of Hispanic America: Million-Scale Mapping between the Wars
2009; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 61; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/03085690902923630
ISSN1479-7801
AutoresAlastair Pearson, Michael Heffernan,
Tópico(s)Migration, Health, Geopolitics, Historical Geography
ResumoABSTRACT ABSTRACT The 1:1 million Map of Hispanic America, compiled at the American Geographical Society's New York headquarters between the First and Second World Wars, has been seen as a landmark in twentieth-century cartography. In this essay we re-evaluate the Hispanic Map as a technical and scholarly project and re-assess its wider significance for the history of twentieth-century topographic mapping in the light of the cultural and political factors that shaped its development. When finally completed in 1945, the Hispanic Map was rightly judged an unsurpassed scientific achievement and a major work of art. But it was already out of date, superseded by newer cartographic technologies, particularly aerial survey and reconnaissance, that had removed the need for the kind of meticulous and painstaking compilation that the Hispanic Map exemplified. La carte au 1:1 000 000 d'Amérique latine, compilée au siège de la Société américaine de géographie à New York entre la Première et la Seconde Guerre mondiale a fait date dans la cartographie du 20e siècle. Dans cet article, nous réévaluons la 'Carte hispanique' en tant que projet technique et scientifique et nous reconsidérons plus largement sa signification dans l'histoire de la cartographie topographique du 20e siècle, à la lumière des facteurs culturels et politiques qui ont influencé son développement. Lorsqu'elle fut finalement achevée en 1945, la 'Carte hispanique' fut à raison considérée comme une réussite scientifique incomparable et un chef-d'œuvre de l'art. Mais elle était déjà dépassée, supplantée par des technologies cartographiques plus modernes, en particulier les levés et reconnaissances par voie aérienne, qui avaient rendu inutile cette sorte de compilation méticuleuse et soignée dont la 'Carte hispanique' était un des modèles. Die Karte von Ibero-Amerika im Maßstab 1:1 Million, die in der New Yorker Zentrale der American Geographical Society zwischen dem Ersten und dem Zweiten Weltkrieg erarbeitet wurde, galt als Meilenstein der Kartographie des 20. Jahrhunderts. In diesem Beitrag wird die 'Hispanic Map' als technisches und wissenschaftliches Projekt sowie ihre breite Wirkung in der Geschichte der topographischen Kartographie im 20. Jahrhundert im Licht der kulturellen und politischen Faktoren, die ihre Entstehung beeinflussten, neu bewertet. Als sie 1945 fertig gestellt wurde, genoss die 'Hispanic Map' zu Recht den Ruf einer unübertroffenen wissenschaftlichen Leistung und eines bedeutenden Kunstwerks. Allerdings war sie zu dieser Zeit bereits veraltet, überholt von neueren kartographischen Techniken (besonders der Vermessung aus der Luft und Methoden der Fernerkundung), die die Notwendigkeit der überaus akribischen und gewissenhaften Kompilation, für die diese Karte stand, überflüssig machten. El mapa de Hispanoamérica a escala 1:1.000.000, compilados en la sede de la Sociedad Geográfica de Nueva York entre la Primera y la Segunda guerra mundial, ha sido considerado un hito en la cartografía del siglo XX. En este ensayo lo reevaluamos como un proyecto técnico y de investigación y volvemos a examinar su amplio significado para la historia de los mapas topográficos del siglo XX, a la luz de factores culturales y políticos que han conformado su desarrollo. Cuando finalmente se completó en 1945, el mapa de Hispanoamérica fue acertadamente considerado como un insuperable logro y un inmenso trabajo artístico. Pero ya estaba caducado y superado por las nuevas tecnologías, particularmente por los reconocimientos y levantamientos aéreos, que habían eliminado la necesidad de esa clase de meticulosa y esmerada compilación que el mapa hispanoamericano ejemplificaba. KEYWORDS: American Geographical SocietyMap of Hispanic Americamillion-scale map compilationinterwar topographic survey and mappingIsaiah Bowmancartometric analysis Acknowledgements This research was funded through the Helen and John S. Best Research Fellowships, and the McColl Research Fellowships, AGS Library, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. The authors would like to thank the AGS Library staff, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, for their invaluable assistance during the production of this work. This article is based on lectures given at the International Cartographic Association (ICA-ACI) Commission on the History of Cartography Symposium at the University of Portsmouth, United Kingdom, September 2008, and at the AGS Library, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee (UWM), May 2008, to mark the 30th anniversary of the AGS Library at the UWM and as part of the Arthur Holzheimer Lecture Series. Notes Notes and References 1. Lord Rennell of Rodd's assessment was made in a commentary on a lecture delivered by Isaiah Bowman at the RGS in 1948. See Isaiah Bowman, 'The geographical situation of the United States in relation to world policies', Geographical Journal 112: 4–6 (1948): 129–42; commentary 142–45, with quotation on 143. 2. For earlier discussions, see John K. Wright, Geography in the Making: The American Geographical Society 1851–1951 (New York, American Geographical Society, 1952), 300–19; John K. Wright, 'British geography and the American Geographical Society, 1851–1951', Geographical Journal 118 (1952): 153–67; and Anon., 'The map of Hispanic America on the scale of 1:1,000,000', Geographical Review 36 (1946): 1–28. 3. Henry James, 'Description of the projection used in the Topographical Department of the War Office for maps embracing large portions of the earth's surface', Journal of the Royal Geographical Society 30 (1860): 106–11. 4. Ruthardt Oehme, 'On the history of Papen's relief map of central Europe, 1:1.000.000', Imago Mundi 18 (1964): 82. Ravenstein used the same scale for his map of eastern equatorial Africa produced for the Royal Geographical Society between 1877 and 1883, as did Bruno Hassenstein for his atlas of Japan, published in seven sheets in 1887 by Perthes of Gotha. On the former, see Sanford H. Bederman, 'The Royal Geographical Society, E. G. Ravenstein, and a map of eastern equatorial Africa, 1877–1883', Imago Mundi 44 (1992): 106–19. 5. Albrecht Penck, 'Die Herstellung einer einheitlichen Erdkarte em Maßtabe von 1:1,000,000', Compte Rendu du Vème Congrès International des Sciences Géographiques tenu à Berne du 10 au 14 aoÛt 1891 (Berne, Schmid, Francke, 1892), 191–98. Penck was at that time based at the University of Vienna, although he subsequently moved to the University of Berlin where he succeeded the physicist Max Planck as Rector during the First World War. See Emil Meynen, 'Albrecht Penck, 1858–1945', in Geographers: Bibliographical Studies, vol. 7, ed. T. W. Freeman (London, Mansell, 1983), 101–8; and Michael Heffernan, 'Professor Penck's bluff: geography, espionage and hysteria in World War One', Scottish Geographical Journal 116 (2000): 267–82. 6. See, for example, Ernst G. Ravenstein, 'A proposed International Map of the World', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society 14 (1892): 716–17; and Albrecht Penck, 'Construction of a map of the world on a scale of 1:1 million', Geographical Journal 1 (1893): 253–61. For a full bibliography of published commentaries about the IMW, see Emil Meynen, International Bibliography of the 'Carte Internationale du Monde au Millionième' (International Map of the World on the Millionth Scale) (Bonn, Bundesanstalt für Landeskunde und Raumforschung, 1962). For a discussion of the wider context, see Alastair W. Pearson, D. R. Fraser Taylor, Karen D. Kline, and Michael Heffernan, 'Cartographic ideals and geopolitical realities: international maps of the world from the 1890s to the present', Canadian Geographer 50 (2006): 149–76. 7. Ferdinand von Richthofen (1833–1905) was Penck's predecessor as professor of geography at the University of Berlin, while Eduard Brückner (1862–1927) and Alexander Supan (1847–1920) were, like Penck, leading physical geographers increasingly recognized for their prescient research on glaciation and global climate change. All three were prominently involved in the Berlin Geographical Society, and Supan was also editor of the leading German geographical journal Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen. John Scott Keltie (1840–1927) was Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society, while the German-born and educated Ravenstein (1834–1913) was an internationally renowned cartographer and a prominent Fellow in the same organization. Franz Schrader (1844–1924), France's leading atlas compiler, was a senior member of the Paris Geographical Society. John Wesley Powell (1834–1902), the legendary explorer of the American West and a one-armed veteran of the Civil War, was director of both the US Geological Survey and the Smithsonian Institution's Bureau of Ethnology. For biographical details on some of these individuals, see A. Kolb, 'Ferdinand Freiherr von Richthofen, 1833–1905', in Freeman, Geographers (note 5), 7: 109–15; the opening chapter by the editors in Eduard Brückner: The Sources and Consequences of Climate Change and Climate Variability in Historical Times, ed. Nico Stehr and Hans von Storch (Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic, 2000); L. J. Jay, 'John Scott Keltie, 1840–1927', in Geographers: Bio-Bibliographical Studies, vol. 10, ed. T. W. Freeman (London, Mansell, 1986), 93–98; David Grigg, 'Ernst Georg Ravenstein, 1834–1913', in Geographers: Bio-Bibliographical Studies, vol. 1, ed. T. W. Freeman, M. Oughton and P. Pinchemel (London, Mansell, 1977), 79–88; David Grigg, 'E. G. Ravenstein and the "laws of migration"', Journal of Historical Geography 3 (1977): 41–54; Numa Broc, 'Franz Schrader, 1844–1924', in Freeman et al., Geographers (op.cit.), 1: 101–8; Scott Kirsch, 'John Wesley Powell and the mapping of the Colorado plateau, 1869–1879: survey, science, geographical solutions, and the economy of environmental values', Annals of the Association of American Geographers 92 (2002): 548–72; and Donald Worster, A River Running West: The Life of John Wesley Powell (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2001). 8. Marie-Claire Robic, 'Les voeux des premiers Congrès: dresser la Carte du Monde', in Géographes Face au Monde: l'Union Géographique Internationale et les Congrès Internationaux de Géographie, ed. Marie-Claire Robic, Anne-Marie Briend and Mechtild Rössler (Paris, L'Harmattan, 1996), 149–78. Resolutions on the IMW by Penck, Schrader and others appear in the volumes of International Geographical Congress reports for London (pub. 1904), 365–79; Berlin (pub. 1901), 1: 203–29 and 2: 65–71; Washington DC, (pub. 1904), 95–102, 104–7, and 553–70; and Geneva (pub. 1908), 1: 331–35, 338–400 and 2: 52–53. 9. For an illuminating first-hand account of these early negotiations, see Charles Arden-Close, Geographical By-ways, and Some Other Geographical Essays (London, Arnold, 1947). Arden-Close was Director-General of the Ordnance Survey from 1911 to 1922. 10. On these techniques, see Arthur R. Hinks, 'The map on the scale 1/1,000,000, compiled at the Royal Geographical Society under the direction of the General Staff, 1914–1915', Geographical Journal 46 (1915): 24–50. 11. Carte du Monde au Millionième: Comptes Rendus des Séances de la Deuxième Conférence Internationale, Paris, Décembre 1913 (Paris, Service Géographique de l'Armée, 1914). For further comments, see Herbert Knorr and Rolf Böhm, 'The development of and the problems attaching to the International Map of the World', in United Nations Technical Conference on the International Map of the World on the Millionth Scale (Bonn, Institut für Angewandte Geödasie, 1962), 15–18. 12. Michael Heffernan, 'Geography, cartography and military intelligence: the Royal Geographical Society and the First World War', Transactions, Institute of British Geographers NS 21 (1996): 504–33. 13. Malcolm N. MacLeod, 'The present state of the International 1/M Map', in Professional Papers: New Series No. 10—Papers Read at the British Association Meeting of 1925 on the Work of the Ordnance Survey, Including an Account of the Work of the International Bureau of the 1/M Map Which Is Located at the Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton (London, HMSO, 1926), 11–13. 14. G. R. Crone, 'The future of the International Million Map of the World', Geographical Journal 128 (1962): 36–38. 15. United Nations Technical Conference on the International Map of the World on the Millionth Scale (Bonn, Institut für Angewandte Geödasie, 1962). 16. Arthur H. Robinson, 'The future of the International Map', Cartographic Journal 1 (1965): 1–4. 17. W. L. G. Joerg, 'Development and state of progress of the United States portion of the International Map of the World', Bulletin of the American Geographical Society 44 (1912): 838–44. 18. See, for example, American Foundations in Europe: Grant-Giving, Cultural Diplomacy and Trans-Atlantic Relations, 1920–1980, ed. Guiliana Gemelli and Roy MacLeod (Bern, Peter Lang Verlagsgruppe, 2003); Rockefeller Philanthropy and Modern Biomedicine: International Institutions from World War One to the Cold War, ed. William Schneider (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2002); Paul Weindling, 'Public health and political stabilisation: the Rockefeller Foundation in central and eastern Europe between the two world wars', Minerva 31 (1993): 253–67; and Paul Weindling, 'Philanthropy and world health: the Rockefeller Foundation and the League of Nations health organization', Minerva 35 (1997): 269–81. 19. On the AGS, Bowman, the House Inquiry, and the Paris Peace Conferences, see Jeremy Crampton, 'The cartographic calculation of space: race mapping and the Balkans at the Paris Peace Conferences of 1919', Social and Cultural Geography 7 (2006): 731–52; Michael Heffernan, 'Inaugurating the American century: 'New World' perspectives on the 'Old' in the early twentieth century', in The American Century: Consensus and Coercion in the Projection of American Power, ed. David Slater and Peter J. Taylor (Oxford, Blackwell, 1999), 117–35; Charles Seymour, Geography, Justice and Politics at the Paris Peace Conference (New York, American Geographical Society, 1951); Neil Smith, American Empire: Roosevelt's Geographer and the Prelude to Globalization (Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 2003), 83–180; and Wright, Geography in the Making (note 2), 189–249. For the AGS in relation to other geographical societies in this period, see Michael Heffernan, 'Mars and Minerva: centres of geographical calculation in an age of total war', Erdkunde 54 (2000): 321–34. 20. For Bowman's views of the post-1918 world order, see Isaiah Bowman, The New World: Problems of Political Geography (New York, World Book Co., 1921); and Smith, American Empire (note 19), 181–210. 21. Bowman's attitude towards Hinks is revealed in a letter he wrote to Sir John Scott Keltie, Hinks's predecessor as RGS Secretary, in December 1921, seeking his assistance in preventing Hinks from reviewing The New World in The Geographical Journal, the RGS's house journal. 'I have long since learned that Mr. Hinks's apparent anti-Americanism and his inexplicable attitude towards me', wrote Bowman, 'have made it impossible in my judgment to secure justice from him … The sole question is the propriety of using the journal of a learned society such as that of the Royal Geographical Society as a weapon for political controversy and propaganda … I am not alone in regretting the better days of the past when we had both a distinguished man and a gentleman as Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society' (Bowman to Keltie, 17 December 1921, Bowman Papers, American Geographical Society Archives, at 120 Wall Street, Suite 100, New York). Hinks's anti-Americanism, part of his general suspicion of all foreigners, was indeed pronounced. He had previously dismissed William Morris Davis as a peddler of 'unfortunate jargon' and had tried to block proposals that either Davis or Ellsworth Huntington should be awarded RGS medals: 'The trouble with both of them', argued Hinks, 'is that they are rather dangerous people to stamp with a high award as so much of what they have written is unreliable' (Hinks to Douglas Freshfield, RGS President, 24 May 1918, Freshfield correspondence, Royal Geographical Society Archives, London). It is worth noting also that Hinks repeatedly questioned the need for an international map, even while representing the RGS at the negotiations. In his opinion, the RGS million-scale maps of Europe and the Middle East prepared during the First World War had revealed the failings of international cooperation: 'The moral seems to be that if you want a general map covering a continent, consistent in style, and available in quantity, you must make it yourself, and whether you call it International or not is a matter of choice, or expediency, or perhaps of chance'. See Arthur R. Hinks, 'The 1/million map of Europe', Geographical Journal 94 (1939): 404–9. 22. Wright, Geography in the Making (note 2), 303. 23. Quoted from Bowman's preface to Alan G. Ogilvie, Geography of the Central Andes: A Handbook to Accompany the La Paz Sheet of the Map of Hispanic America on the Millionth Scale, Map of Hispanic America, Publication No. 1 (New York, American Geographical Society, 1922), ix, xi. 24. On the political and economic context shaping US–Latin American relations in this period, see Lars Schoultz, Beneath the United States: A History of US Policy towards Latin America (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1998). For a detailed case study of commercial exploitation, see Bradford L. Barham and Oliver T. Coomes, The Amazon Rubber Boom and Distorted Development (Boulder, CO., Westview, 1996). Bowman was acutely aware of the plans hatched by Henry Ford to establish rubber plantations in Brazil in the 1920s and became equally aware that the failure of these ventures was due in large measure to a lamentable ignorance of the environmental conditions. For contemporary comments, see Joseph A. Russell, 'Fordlandia and Belterra, rubber plantations on the Tapajos River, Brazil', Economic Geography 18 (1942): 125–45. For a recent critique, see John Galey, 'Industrialist in the wilderness: Henry Ford's Amazon venture', Journal of InterAmerican Studies and World Affairs 21 (1979): 261–89. 25. It is worth noting that one of Bowman's predecessors as president of Johns Hopkins, Daniel Coit Gilman, also operated at the intersection between maps and politics in Latin America, in his case as a member the Venezuelan Boundary Commission established by President Grover Cleveland at the end of the 19th century. See Richard Heyman, 'Libraries as armouries: Daniel Coit Gilman, geography, and the uses of a university', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 19 (2001): 295–316. 26. On Ogilvie's experiences in Paris, see Alan G. Ogilvie, Some Aspects of Boundary Settlement at the Peace Conferences (New York, Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, 1922). The 1912 Transcontinental Excursion, a mobile international geographical conference in which delegates travelled by various means from New York to San Francisco and Seattle and back to New York, was organized on behalf of the AGS by William Morris Davis and involved many of the leading figures in the discipline. See the Memorial Volume of the Transcontinental Excursion of 1912 of the American Geographical Society of New York (New York, American Geographical Society, 1915); and Hugh Clout, 'Lessons from experience: French geographers and the transcontinental excursion of 1912', Progress in Human Geography 28 (2004): 597–618. 27. Anon., 'The map of Hispanic America' (see note 2). 28. Wright, Geography in the Making (see note 2), 304–7. 29. Raye R. Platt, 'The millionth map of Hispanic America', Geographical Review 17 (1927): 301–8. 30. A Catalogue of Maps of Hispanic America Including Maps in Scientific Periodicals and Books and Sheet and Atlas Maps with Articles on the Cartography of the Several Countries and Maps Showing the Extent and Character of Existing Surveys, 4 vols. (New York, American Geographical Society, 1930–1933): Volume I: Mexico, Central America, West Indies (1930); Volume II: South America, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia (1932); Volume III: Venezuela, the Guianas, Brazil, Paraguay (1933); Volume IV: Argentine Republic, Chile, Uruguay (1932). 31. Raye R. Platt, 'Surveys in Hispanic America: notes on a new map showing the extent and character of surveys in Hispanic America', Geographical Review 20 (1930): 138–42. 32. For recent discussions of exploration and mapping in Latin America during the 19th century, see D. Graham Burnett, Masters of All They Surveyed: Exploration, Geography, and a British El Dorado (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2000); and Raymond B. Craib, Cartographic Mexico: A History of State Fixations and Fugitive Landscapes (Durham, NC, Duke University Press, 2004). 33. Platt, 'The millionth map of Hispanic America' (see note 29), 302. 34. On Sievers, see Günter Mertins, 'Wilhelm Sievers, 1860–1921', in Geographers: Bibliographical Studies, vol. 8, ed. T. W. Freeman (London, Mansell, 1984), 107–10. 35. Boundary surveys were often complex, international projects. The border between Bolivia and Peru from Lake Titicaca northward to the Brazilian frontier was surveyed in 1911–1913 by commissions appointed by both governments operating under a group of British engineers appointed by the Royal Geographical Society. See Thomas H. Holdich 'The geographical results of the Peru–Bolivia boundary commission', Geographical Journal 47 (1916): 95–113. 36. Michael Blakemore and Brian Harley, 'Concepts in the history of cartography: a review and perspective', in Monograph 26, ed. E. H. Dahl; Cartographica 17:4 (1980), 1–120. 37. Bernhard Jenny, 'MapAnalyst—a digital tool for the analysis of the planimetric accuracy of historical maps', e-Perimetron 1 (2006): 239–45. 38. Ogilvie, Geography of the Central Andes (see note 23). 39. Ten other sheets were already under construction when the La Paz sheet was published in 1922, including the peninsula of Baja California and the Gran Chaco of southeastern Bolivia. The idea was to complete the sheets in natural clusters to benefit from the overlapping nature of the source material. 40. Three sheets were published by the Comision Chilena de Límites, 17°–20° south, at a scale of 1:250,000 between 1908 and 1912. For the French survey, see Ogilvie's comments about the unpublished 1:200,000 map produced by the 'Mission Schrader' between La Paz and Lake Titicaca, c.1904, in Geography of the Central Andes (see note 23). The Conway map, entitled 'The highest part of the Cordillera Real, Bolivia, from a triangulation and plane table survey by Sir Martin Conway, 1898 and various unpublished documents', was included in Martin Conway, 'Notes on a map of part of the Cordillera Real of Bolivia', Geographical Journal 15 (1900): 528–29; and in Martin Conway, The Bolivian Andes: A Record of Climbing and Exploration in the Cordillera Real in the Years 1898 and 1900 (New York, Harper and Bros., 1901). On Conway's mountaineering feats, see P. H. Hansen, 'Vertical boundaries, national identities: British mountaineering on the frontiers of Europe and the empire, 1868–1914', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 24 (1996): 48–71. Maps of the nitrate district were published by the Oficina de Mensura de Tierras at a scale of 1:500,000 in 2 sheets, 17°–21° south, in 1910. 41. 'Map of part of Bolivia from the surveys of J. B. Minchin', in George Chaworth Musters 'Notes on Bolivia, to accompany original maps,' Journal of the Royal Geographical Society 47 (1877): 201–16; and 'Part of the Bolivian table land from a trigonometrical survey executed for the National Government in 1882 by J. B. Minchin', American Geographical Society Library at the Golda Meir Library, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee [hereafter AGSL], Ref 252A – 1882 (Scan am005156). 42. See 'Routenkarte der Expedition Steinman, Hoek, v Bistram in den Anden von Bolivien 1903–04', Sheet 2, 1:750,000, AGSL Ref 252C – 1906 (Scan am005160). 43. 'Reconnaissance 1:10,000 map showing country between La Paz and Yungas by the Antofagasta á Bolivia Railway Company, 1916–1918', AGSL. 44. For an entertaining account of Fawcett's unusual life and premature death in the Amazon, see David Grann, The Lost City of Z: A Tale of Deadly Obsession in the Amazon (New York, Doubleday, 2009). 45. 'Sketch map to illustrate the explorations of Major P. H. Fawcett, RGA, in 1913–14, scale 1:3,000,000', AGSL Ref 252A – 1915 (Scan am005212). 46. Ogilvie is not specific about which Annuario geográfico y estadístico de la República de Bolivia he used. 47. The US Defense Mapping Agency Operational Navigation Chart series (ONC) at a scale of 1:1 million was the primary source for the Digital Chart of the World. ONCs, the largest scale unclassified maps produced by the Defense Mapping Agency, provide consistent global coverage of essential features (cities, towns, roads, railways, rivers and political boundaries) and are designed to support medium-altitude navigation. Further details about the Digital Chart of the World can be found at http://www.maproom.psu.edu/dcw/dcw_about.shtml. 48. Anon., 'The map of Hispanic America' (see note 2). 49. Alexander Hamilton Rice, 'The Rio Negro, the Casiquiare Canal, and the Upper Orinoco, September 1919–April 1920', Geographical Journal 58 (1921): 321–43. For an excellent account of Rice's Amazonian explorations, including his films, see Luciana Martins, 'Illusions of power: vision, technology and the geographical exploration of the Amazon, 1924–1925', Journal of Latin American Cultural Studies 16 (2007): 285–307. 50. For his own idiosyncratic account of this journey, see Herbert S. Dickey, My Jungle Book (Boston, Little and Brown, 1932). 51. Anon., 'The map of Hispanic America' (see note 2). For a concise history of the demarcation of the boundary between Brazil and Venezuela, see International Boundary Study No. 175, Brazil–Venezuela Boundary, prepared by the Office of The Geographer, Bureau of Intelligence and Research, U.S. Department of State, July 17, 1985. A copy can be downloaded from http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/LimitsinSeas/ . 52. Desmond Holdridge, 'Exploration between the Rio Branco and the Serra Parima,' Geographical Review 23 (1933): 372–84. 53. Ibid., 383. 54. Atlas of the Americas (New York, American Geographical Society, 1942), Sheet 1b, South America North (2nd ed., with minor revisions, 1944), at 1:5,000,000. 55. A Catalogue of Maps of Hispanic America, Volume II: South America, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia (see note 30), 56. 56. Wright, Geography in the Making (see note 2), 333. 57. Barranquilla's Ernesto Cortissoz International Airport was the first airport built in South America in 1919. 58. For a detailed account of the expedition, see Thomas D. Cabot, 'The Cabot Expedition to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta of Colombia,' Geographical Review 29 (1939): 587–621 (with material from Walter A. Wood, 615–16; and Frank B. Notestein, 616–21). For an account of the method of survey, see Walter A. Wood, 'Mapping the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta: the work of the Cabot Colombian Expedition,' Geographical Review 31 (1941): 639–43. 59. Anon., 'Dinner to celebrate the completion of the Map of Hispanic America, 1:1,000,000', Geographical Review 36 (1946): 312–14, at 313. For the full text of Bowman's address, and that of Spruille Braden, the US Assistant Secretary of State, see Isaiah Bowman, 'The millionth map of Hispanic America', Science 103 (1946): 319–23; and Spruille Braden, 'Congratulatory address', Science 103 (1946): 323–25.
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