Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

Transformations of a Memory of Tyranny in Syria: From Jamal Pasha to ‘Id al-Shuhada’ , 1914–2000

2012; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 48; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/00263206.2012.644459

1743-7881

Fruma Zachs,

Middle East Politics and Society

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Mediterranean Programme: 11th Mediterranean Research Meeting in Florence in March 2010. The author wishes to thank Dr E. Ginio for his encouragement and insights. J.K. Olick and J. Robbins, ‘Social Memory Studies: From “Collective Memory” to the Historical Sociology of Mnemonic Practices’, Annual Review of Sociology, Vol.24 (1998), p.107. Ibid. Most of the transliteration in the text is from Arabic. See for example, Olick and Robbins, ‘Social Memory Studies’, p.112. J. Winter and E. Sivan (eds.), War and Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p.6; See also J. Winter, Remembering War: The Great War between Memory and History in the Twentieth Century (New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press, 2006), p.5; See also S.A. Crane, ‘Writing the Individual Back into Collective Memory’, The American Historical Review, Vol. 02, No. (1997), pp.1372–85. Olick and Robbins, ‘Social Memory Studies’, p.122; also, J. Winter, ‘Forms of Kinship and Remembrance in the Aftermath of the Great War’, in J. Winter and E. Sivan (eds.), War and Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p.59; See also Winter, Remembering War. M. Halbwachs, On Collective Memory, trans. and ed. L.A. Coser (Chicago: University Chicago Press, 1992). Winter, Remembering War, p.276; Halbwachs, On Collective Memory, p.38; U. Makdisi and P.A. Silverstein (eds.), Memory and Violence in the Middle East and North Africa (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2006), pp.9–12. Wedeen shows how Syrian society found a way to subvert state symbols without causing itself trouble from the authorities. For more details see, L. Wedeen, Ambiguities of Domination: Politics, Rhetoric, and Symbols in Contemporary Syria (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999). Halbwachs, On Collective Memory. For further details see, G.L. Mosse, Fallen Soldiers: Reshaping the Memory of the World Wars (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990). For further details see, J.R. Gillis (ed.), Commemorations: The Politics of National Identity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994). Winter, Remembering War, p.1. J. Winter, Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning: The Great War in European Cultural History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995). N. Al-Qattan, ‘Safarbarlik: Ottoman Syria and the Great War’, in T. Phillipp and C. Schumann (eds.), From the Syrian Land to the States of Syria and Lebanon (Beirut: Orient-Institut der DMG Beirut, 2004), p.163. See L. Schatkowski Schilcher, ‘The Famine of 1915–1918 in Greater Syria’, in J.P. Spagnolo (ed.), Problems of the Modern Middle East in Historical Perspective: Essays in Honour of Albert Hourani (Oxford: Ithaca Press, 1992), pp.229–58; E. Thompson, Colonial Citizens: Republican Rights, Paternal Privilege, and Gender in French Syria and Lebanon (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000). See for example, N.Q. Hasan, Hadith Dimashqi: 1884–1983 (Mudhakkirat), Vol.1 (Damascus: Tlasdar, 1988), p.261; See also the way Tergeman presents the attitude of her mother's generation toward Jamal. S. Tergeman, Daughter of Damascus. English version by Andrea Rugh (Austin: University of Texas, 1994), pp.96–7. Al-Qattan, ‘Safarbarlik: Ottoman Syria and the Great War’, pp.166–8. Turan is an ancient Iranian name for the country to the north-east of Persia. It is used to describe the Turkish lands of Central and South East Asia, and the term Turanian is applied to a group of peoples and languages comprising Turkish and Mongol as well as Finnish, Hungarian, and others. Pan-Turanism extended the idea of union on the basis of Turkic ethnicity to encompass the Hungarians, Finns and Estonians in this mythical land called Turan. Ottoman authors employed the concept of Turan most often as a synonym for pan-Turanism. For more details see B. Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), pp.347, 351. See G. Antonius, The Arab Awakening (New York: Capricorn Books, 1965), pp.150–52. For more details see, Z.N. Zeine, The Emergence of Arab Nationalism: With a Background Study of Arab-Turkish Relations in the Near East (Beirut: Khayats, 1966), pp.128–30; N.Z. Ajay Jr., ‘Political Intrigue and Suppression in Lebanon during World War I’, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol.5 (1974), pp.146–60: W.L. Cleveland, Islam Against the West – Shakib Arslan and the Campaign for Islamic Nationalism (London: Al-Saki Books, 1985), pp.34–5. Zeine, The Emergence of Arab Nationalism, p.132. For more details see, M.N. Al-Madani, Watha'iq Jamal Basha al-Saffah-Mazalim Jamal Basha wa-Akhir Ayyam al-Atrak (Damascus: Maktab ‘Anbar, 1996). ‘A.S. Al-Khalidi, Jawla fil-Dhikrayat bayna Lubnan wa-Filastin (Beirut: Dar al-Nahar lil-Nashr, 1978); K. al-‘Azm, Mudhakkirat Khalid al-‘Azm, 3 vols. (Beirut: al-Dar al-Mutahida lil-Nashr, 1973). Al-‘Azm, Mudhakkirat Khalid al-‘Azm, Vol.1, p.91. Ibid., pp.67–8. Ibid., pp.68–72. Ibid., pp.73–4. ‘Anbara's father ‘Ali Salam (1869–1938) was one of the most distinguished leaders in Beirut, and held various positions in the Ottoman government. He was a merchant, head of the Beiruti Municipality, a member of the Ottoman parliament, and was active in Arab politics. Al-Khalidi, Jawla fil-Dhikrayat, pp.5–10. Ibid., p.11. Ibid., pp.100–105. Ibid., pp.99–101. Ibid., p.104. Ibid., pp.103–5. Ibid., pp.106–11. Ibid., p.108. Ibid., pp.106–11. J.S. Makdisi, Teta, Mother and Me: An Arab Women's Memoir (London: Saqi Books, 2005), pp.204–5. For more details see, S. Moubayed, Steel and Silk: Men and Women who Shaped Syria 1900–2000 (Seattle: Cune Press, 2006), pp.277–81. F. Al-Khuri, Awraq Faris al-Khuri, ed. Kulit al-Khuri (Damascus: ‘Utustrad al-Maza, 1989), p.120. See also Y. ‘Abd al-Latif, Shukri al-Quwatli: Ta'rikh Umma fi Khayat al-Rajul 1908–1958 (Cairo: Dar al-Ma‘arif, 1959). Al-Khuri, Awraq Faris al-Khuri, p.139. Moubayed, Steel and Silk, p.235. See for example, S. Al-Haffar al-Kuzbari, Lutfi al-Haffar: Mudhakkiratuhu, Hayatuhu wa-‘Asruhu (London and Beirut: Riad el-Rayyes Books, 1997), pp.74–5. Winter, ‘Forms of Kinship and Remembrance’, p.42. For more details on national holidays in the Middle East see, E. Podeh, The Politics of National Celebrations in the Arab Middle East (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011). See, A. Confino, ‘Collective Memory and Cultural History: Problems of Method’, The American Historical Review, Vol.102, No.5 (1997), p.1389. Y. Al-‘Isa, ‘Dhikra al-Shuhada’’, Alif Ba’, No.1933, 6 May 1927; J.L. Gelvin, Divided Loyalties: Nationalism and Mass Politics in Syria at the Close of the Empire (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 1998), p.177. Ibid., p.144. Ibid., p.178. Ibid., pp.175–84, 256–9. For example see, Alif Ba’, No.211, 8 May 1921; ‘‘Id al-Shuhada’ wal-Hukuma’, Alif Ba’, No.1413, 6 May 1925; Alif Ba’, No.1686, 6 May 1926; ‘Dhikra al-Shuhada’’, Fata al-‘Arab, No.1312, 5 May 1926; ‘Fi Takrim al-Shuhada’’, Fata al-‘Arab, No.1314, 7 May 1926. ‘Dhikra al-Shuhada’’, Alif Ba’, No.1108, 3 May, 1924; ‘Haflat al-Shuhda’’, Alif Ba’, No.4005, 8 May 1934; ‘Haflat Dhikr al-Shuhada’’, Fata al-Arab, No.3882, 8 May 1935. Y. Al-‘Isa, ‘Dhikra al-Shuhada’’, Alif Ba’, No.1933, 6 May 1927. ‘Haflat al-Shuhada’ fi Baris', Alif Ba’, No.1425, 20 May 1925. ‘Dhikra al-Shuhada’’, Alif Ba’, No.2821, 6 May 1930. It was difficult to access certain Syrian newspapers published between 1946 and 1670. However, the issues that I did manage to obtain led to a number of conclusions. In the 1950s, for example, in the newspaper Alif Ba’ there are brief references to ‘Id al-Shuhada’, see for example, A. Al-‘Isa, ‘‘Id al-Shuhada’’, Alif Ba’, No.8604, 7 May 1951, p.1. The article describes the martyrs as reflecting strivings for freedom for the homeland and how the Syrians need to preserve this freedom. However in 1952 there is no mention of the holiday; see Alif Ba’, No.8871, 7 May 1952; In the newspaper al-Qabas there is no mention of the ‘Id from 1951 to 1954; see for example, al-Qabas, No.459, 6 May 1952. In the newspaper al-Insha’ there are hardly any references to this ‘Id in the 1940s and 1950s. See also for example, ‘Dhikra al-Shuhada’’, al-Istiqlal al-‘Arabi, No.837, 8 May 1947, p.2; Ibn al-Balad, ‘Fi Dhikra Shuhada’ Ayyar’, al-Nasr, No.4276, 7 May 1959, p.3; ‘Shuhada'una aladhi Saqatu wa-hum Yuraddiduna Sawfa Nahsulu ‘ala Istiqlalina Kamilan’, al-Thawra, No.906, 6 May 1966, p.3. See for more details, H. Batatu, Syria's Peasantry, the Descendants of its Lesser Rural Notables, and Their Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), pp.279–83. E. Zisser, ‘Who's Afraid of Syrian Nationalism? National and State Identity in Syria’, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.42, No.2 (2006), pp.179–98. See for example, M. Tlas, Al-Thawra al-‘Arabiyya al-Kubra (Beirut: Dar al-Shura, 1978). Other terms were Ta‘ssuf al-‘Uthmani, Irhab ‘Uthmani, Hamlat al-Tatrik. See ‘al-Shahada’ ‘Unwan lil-Karama wal-‘Izza wa-Tariq al-Thawra’, al-Thawra, No.1284, 7 May 1997, pp.2, 8: ‘Kawakib al-Nidal al-Watani’, al-Thawra, No.13911, 7 May 2009, p.11: M.K. Al-Jamali, ‘Thamn al-Huriyya fi Qissat al-Sadis min Ayyar’, al-Thawra, No.8274, 6 May 1990, p.9. These terms were used mainly until 2004, when an understanding was reached concerning Alexandretta. The two parties set the dispute aside and concentrated on building a better relationship between them. See for example, A. Al-Wa‘i, ‘Zaman al-Shahada wal-Shuhada’’, No.1390, 6 May 2009, p.6. See for more details, al-Thawra, No.6784, 5 May 1985, pp.1, 2, 3. See also al-Thawra, No.6785, 7 May 1985, p.3; A. Majd, ‘Al-Shuhada’ ‘Iduhum ‘Id al-Huriyya, ‘Id al-Watan’, al-Thawra, No.9703, 6 May 1995, p.8. ‘Al-Shahada, ‘Unwan lil-Karama wal-‘Izza wa-Tariq al-Thawra’, al-Thawra, No.1284, 7 May 1997, p.2; Nadiya Sabagh, ‘Mawqi‘ al-Sadis min Ayyar Fi Masirat Harakat al-Tahrir al-‘Arabi’, al-Thawra, 7 May 1974, p.3; ‘Al-Sadis min Ayyar In‘itaf Hamm fil-Tarikh al-‘Arabi, al-Mu‘asir’, al-Thawra, No.4358, 6 May 1977, p.3; ‘al-Shahada’ ‘Unwan lil-Karama wal-‘Izza wa-Tariq al-Thawra’, al-Thawra, No.1284, 7 May 1997, pp.8, 9; W. Najm, ‘al-Ma‘na al-Ta‘rikhi li-Shuhada’ al-Sadis min Ayyar’, al-Thawra, No.3437, 7 May 1974, p.6; ‘Kawakib al-Nidal al-Watani’, al-Thawra, No.13911, 7 May 2009, p.11; al-Thawra, No.4359, 7 May 1977, pp.1, 4. See, for example, ‘Tlas ra'a Mihrajan Banat wa-Abna’ al-Shuhada’’, Tishrin, No.1845, 6 May 1981, p.1; W. Mihna, ‘Shuhada'una Masha‘il Nur ‘ala Durub al-Huriyya wal-Karama’, Tishrin, No.571, 5 May 1986, p.5; Tishrin, No.3571, 6 May 1986, pp.2, 5, 8; Tishrin, No.5049, 7 May, 1991, p.1; ‘Fi ‘Id Anbal Bani al-Bashar’, Tishrin, No.6772, 6 May 1995, p.1. I. Laqa, ‘6 Ayyar, Yawm al-Shahada al-Khalida fil-Dhakira al-‘Arabiyya’, Tishrin, No.473, 6 May 1977, p.3; H. Al-Sham‘a, ‘Yawm al-Shuhada’-Yawm al-Majd wal-Fakhar wal-Kibriya’, Tishrin, No.473, 6 May 1977, p.4; F. Zarzur, ‘al-Shuhada’ fil-Shi‘r al-‘Arabi’, Tishrin, No.473, 6 May 1977, p.5. The tomb, which is in on Jabal Qasyun (traditionally considered the birthplace of the ‘first man’), is a war memorial dedicated to Syrian soldiers killed during battle. The monument, built in 1994, has a domed exhibit hall featuring large depictions of five epic battles in Arab history: Yarmuk, Hatin, Maysalun, Jabal Harmun and Sultan Ya‘qub. It is interesting to note that during the beginning of Assad's rule in the 1970s, the events of 6 May were marked by lighting a torch, whereas a decade later a tomb marked the place and years later this became a mausoleum. On the Martyrs' Square in Lebanon today see M. Young, The Ghost of Martyrs Square: An Eyewitness Account of Lebanon's Life Struggle (New York, London, Toronto and Sydney: Simon and Schuster, 2010), pp.31–6. See, for example, ‘al-Shahada Tariq al-Nasr wal-Sharaf’, Tishrin, No.6514, 6 May 1996, p.1. See also pages 4, 7, 10. ‘Al-Munadil al-Assad Yukarrim al-Shuhada’ fi ‘Idihim’, Tishrin, No.776, 6 May 1978, p.1, see also pages 4–6; Tishrin, No.1846, 7 May 1981, pp.1, 11; Tishrin, No.886, 6 May 1984, pp.2, 4. A. Christmann, ‘An Invented Piety? Subduing Ramadan in Syrian State Media’, in A. Salvatore (ed.), Muslim Traditions and Modern Techniques of Power, Yearbook of the Sociology of Islam 3 (Hamburg, Berlin, London: Transaction Publishers, 2001), pp.246–7. See for more details, Zisser, ‘Who's Afraid of Syrian Nationalism’, pp.179–98. N. al-Yafi, Jamal Basha al-Saffah-Dirasa fil-Shakhsiyya wal-Ta'rikh (Ladhakiyya: Dar al-Hiwar lil-Nashr wal-Tawzi‘, 1993), p.7. Ibid., p.8. Ibid., pp.8, 18–19. N. Sabagh, ‘Mawqi‘ al-Sadis min Ayyar fi Masirat Harakat al-Tahrir al-‘Arabi’, al-Thawra, 7 May 1974, p.3. ‘A. Al-Da‘uq, ‘Yawm Mushriq fi 6 Ayyar Ta'rikh al-Nidal al-‘Arabi’, Tishrin, 6 May 1977, p.9. M. Eliade, Images and Symbols (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1963), p.34. B. Schwartz, ‘The Social Context of Commemoration: A Study in Collective Memory’, Social Forces, Vol.61, No.2 (1982), pp.374–6.