Service Life and Beyond – Institution or Culture?
2014; Routledge; Volume: 159; Issue: 5 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/03071847.2014.969946
ISSN1744-0378
AutoresBeverly P Bergman, Howard Burdett, Neil Greenberg,
ResumoAbstractIn the UK, armed services personnel are perceived to become institutionalised during service, with negative connotations, especially in the process of transition to veteran status. Beverly P Bergman, Howard J Burdett and Neil Greenberg argue that institutionalisation is an inappropriate model, and that becoming a member of the armed forces is better represented by a model of culture shock, with reverse culture shock being experienced upon leaving. The adoption of this model would be useful both in preparing UK service personnel for civilian life and in supporting them after transition, and may help to predict vulnerability. Notes1 Defence Statistics (Tri Service), Ministry of Defence, 'UK Armed Forces Quarterly Personnel Report', 1 October 2013.2 Amy C Iversen and Neil Greenberg, 'Mental Health of Regular and Reserve Military Veterans', Advances in Psychiatric Treatment (Vol. 15, No. 2, March 2009), pp. 100–06.3 The terms 'military', 'soldier' and the male or female pronoun are used generically to refer to members of all three services and to both genders, except where otherwise dictated by the context. See Amy Iversen et al., 'What Happens to British Veterans When They Leave the Armed Forces?', European Journal of Public Health (Vol. 15, No. 2, April 2005), pp. 175–84.4 For example, in William Wordsworth's poem 'The Discharged Soldier', written in 1798 and widely believed to describe a soldier returning from war service in the West Indies in 1796. See Jonathan F Borus, 'The Reentry Transition of the Vietnam Veteran', Armed Forces and Society (Vol. 2, No. 1, Fall 1975), pp. 97– 114; Forces in Mind Trust, 'The Transition Mapping Study: Understanding the Transition Process for Service Personnel Returning to Civilian Life', August 2013, , accessed 16 September 2014.5 Lord Ashcroft, 'Veterans' Transition Review', February 2014, , accessed 16 September 2014.6 Ministry of Defence, 'Early Service Leavers: Guidance Notes for Resettlement Staff', JSP 575, No. 4, March 2010; Joshua E J Buckman et al., 'Early Service Leavers: A Study of the Factors Associated with Premature Separation from the UK Armed Forces and the Mental Health of Those that Leave Early', European Journal of Public Health (Vol. 23, No. 3, 2013), pp. 410–15.7 Ministry of Defence, 'Early Service Leavers'.8 For further information, see COBSEO, 'A Brighter Future for Early Service Leavers', 21 February 2012, , accessed 18 September 2014.9 Lord Ashcroft, 'Veterans' Transition Review'.10 David I Walker, 'Anticipating Army Exit: Identity Constructions of Final Year UK Career Soldiers', Armed Forces and Society (Vol. 39, No. 2, April 2013), pp. 284–304.11 Christina L Lafferty et al. '"Did You Shoot Anyone?" A Practitioner's Guide to Combat Veteran Workplace and Classroom Reintegration', SAM Advanced Management Journal (Autumn 2008), pp. 4–18.12 Buckman et al., 'Early Service Leavers'.13 Christopher Dandeker et al., 'Improving the Delivery of Cross Departmental Support and Services for Veterans: A Joint Report of the Department of War Human Behavior and the Social Environment', Advances in Social Work (Vol. 8, No. 1, 2007), pp. 219–36.14 Ashcroft, The Armed Forces and Society: The Military in Britain – Through the Eyes of Service Personnel, Employers and the Public, May 2012, , accessed 17 September 2014.15 In this article, the term 'social' is used to refer to individual interactions and 'societal' is used to refer to the way in which wider society perceives the armed forces and its members (and vice versa).16 Miriam McNown Johnson and Rita Rhodes, 'Institutionalization: A Theory of Human Behavior and the Social Environment', Advances in Social Work (Vol. 8, No. 1, 2007), pp. 219–36.17 Noah Riseman, 'The Stolen Veteran: Institutionalisation, Military Service, and the Stolen Generations', Aboriginal History (Vol. 35, 2011); Felipe Agüero, 'Legacies of Transitions: Institutionalization, the Military, and Democracy in South America', Mershon International Studies Review (Vol. 42, No. 2, November 1998), pp. 383–404.18 William Hugh Milroy, Pathways to the Street for Ex-Service Personnel: An Examination of Various Routes to Homelessness for Ex-Service Personnel (Norwich: University of East Anglia, 2001).19 Jim McDermott, 'Struggling on Civvy Street?', Defence Management Journal (No. 44, 2009), pp. 168–69.Studies and the Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London', July 2003.20 National Audit Office, Leaving the Services, HC 618 (London: The Stationery Office, July 2007).21 Lord Ashcroft, 'Veterans' Transition Review'.22 Denis Martin's discussion of institutionalisation in The Lancet, under the heading 'In the Mental Hospital', describes how patients 'settle down' into the hospital routine, gradually becoming co-operative and submissive as they become 'well institutionalised'. It is easy to appreciate how this theoretical model came to be applied to the new soldier, learning to accept military discipline and authority. See Denis V Martin, 'Institutionalisation', The Lancet (1955), pp. 1188–90.23 Elizabeth Culhane, Patrice Reid, Loring J Crepeau and Daniel McDonald, 'The Critical Role of Cross-Cultural Competence in the Military', Industrial- Organizational Psychologist (Vol. 50, No. 1, 2012), pp. 30–37.24 Geert Hofstede, Allemaal andersdenkenden: Omgaan met cultuurverschillen (Paris: Les Éditions d'Organisation, 1994), cited in Riseman, 'The Stolen Veteran'; Bernadet van den Pol, 'The Connection between Culture and Climate Change', , accessed 17 September 2014. As defined in the Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed., (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).25 As defined in the Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed.26 Kalervo Oberg, 'Cultural Shock: Adjustment to New Cultural Environments', Practical Anthropology (Vol. 7, 1960), pp. 177–82.27 Judy E Boychuk Duchscher, 'Transition Shock: The Initial Stage of Role Adaptation for Newly Graduated Registered Nurses', Journal of Advanced Nursing (Vol. 65, No. 5, May 2009), pp. 1103–13.28 Paul Pedersen, The Five Stages of Culture Shock: Critical Incidents around the World (Westport, CT: Geenwood Press, 1995).29 Williamson Murray, 'Does Military Culture Matter?', Orbis (Vol. 43, No. 1, 1999), pp. 27–42.30 Ministry of Defence, 'British Defence Doctrine', Joint Doctrine Publication 0-01, 4th ed., November 2011; Ministry of Defence, 'Values and Standards of the British Army', January 2008.31 Dennis P Hogan and Nan Marie Astone, 'The Transition to Adulthood', Annual Review of Sociology (Vol. 12, August 1986), pp. 109–30.32 Pedersen, The Five Stages of Culture Shock.33 Peter S Adler, 'The Transitional Experience: An Alternative View of Culture Shock', Journal of Humanistic Psychology (Vol. 15, No. 4, 1975), pp. 13–23.34 Mark Heyward, 'From International to Intercultural: Redefining the International School for a Globalized World', Journal of Research in International Education (Vol. 1, No. 1, September 2002), pp. 9–32.35 Adler, 'The Transitional Experience'.36 Ibid.37 Hogan and Astone, 'The Transition to Adulthood.'38 Simon O Lesser and Hollis W Peter, 'Training Foreign Nationals in the United States', in Rensis Likert and Samuel P Hayes, Jr (eds), Some Applications of Behavioral Research (Paris: UNESCO, 1957), p. 160, as quoted in Pedersen, The Five Stages of Culture Shock.39 Helena D Thomas and Neil Anderson, 'Changes in Newcomers' Psychological Contracts during Organizational Socialization: A Study of Recruits Entering the British Army', Journal of Organizational Behavior (Vol. 19, No. S1, 1998), pp. 745–67.40 William Arkin and Lynne R Dobrofsky, 'Military Socialization and Masculinity', Journal of Social Issues (Vol. 34, No. 1, 1978), pp. 151–68.41 Adler, 'The Transitional Experience'.42 William H Mobley et al., 'Pre-Recruit Training Values, Expectations, and Intentions of Marine Corps Recruits', University of South Carolina, Center for Business Studies, 1977. Report prepared under the US Navy All Volunteer Force Manpower R&D Program of The Office of Naval Research under Contract NOOO 14-76-C-0 93 8.43 A Flach et al., 'Fight or Flight? The Drop-Out Phenomenon During Initial Military Training: Homesickness', paper presented at the 42nd Annual Conference of the International Military Testing Association, Edinburgh, November 2000.44 See respectively Adler, 'The Transitional Experience' and Pedersen, The Five Stages of Culture Shock.45 August B Hollingshead, 'Adjustment to Military Life', American Journal of Sociology (Vol. 51, No. 5, 1946), pp. 439–47.46 Ministry of Defence, 'British Defence Doctrine'.47 Thomas and Anderson, 'Changes in Newcomers' Psychological Contracts during Organizational Socialization'.48 Arkin and Dobrofsky, 'Military Socialization and Masculinity'.49 Richard H Gatchel, 'The Evolution of the Concept', in I A Snook (ed.), Concepts of Indoctrination (Abingdon: Routledge, 2011).50 Joshua J Jackson et al., 'Military Training and Personality Trait Development: Does the Military Make the Man, or Does the Man Make the Military?', Psychological Science (Vol. 23, No. 3, 2012), pp. 270–77.51 Teresa LaFromboise et al., 'Psychological Impact of Biculturalism: Evidence and Theory', Psychological Bulletin (Vol. 114, No. 3, 1993), pp. 395–412.52 Dandeker et al., 'Improving the Delivery of Cross Departmental Support and Services for Veterans'.53 LaFromboise et al., 'Psychological Impact of Biculturalism'.54 Nan M Sussman, 'Re-Entry Research and Training: Methods and Implications', International Journal of Intercultural Relations (Vol. 10, No. 2, 1986), pp. 235–54.55 Bethany L Mooradian, 'Going Home When Home Does Not Feel Like Home: Reentry, Expectancy Violation Theory, Self-Construal, and Psychological and Social Support', Intercultural Communication Studies (Vol. 13, 2004), pp. 37–50.56 Mitchell R Hammer, William Hart and Randall Rogan, 'Can You Go Home Again? An Analysis of the Repatriation of Corporate Managers and Spouses', Management International Review (Vol. 38, No. 1, 1998), pp. 67–86.57 Robert R Faulkner and Douglas B McGaw, 'Uneasy Homecoming Stages in the Reentry Transition of Vietnam Veterans', Journal of Contemporary Ethnography (Vol. 6, No. 3, 1977), pp. 303–28.58 Dandeker et al., 'Improving the Delivery of Cross Departmental Support and Services for Veterans'.59 Sussman, 'Re-Entry Research and Training'.60 Martin Petter, 'Temporary Gentlemen in the Aftermath of the Great War: Rank, Status and the Ex-Officer Problem', Historical Journal (Vol. 37, No. 1, 2004), pp. 127–52.61 Alfred Schuetz, 'The Homecomer', American Journal of Sociology (Vol. 50, No. 5, 1945), pp. 369–76.62 Thomas Wolfe, You Can't Go Home Again (New York, NY: Sun Dial Press, 1942), p. 741.63 Nancy J Adler, 'Re-Entry: Managing Cross-Cultural Transitions', Group and Organization Management (Vol. 6, No. 3, 1981), pp. 341–56.64 Sussman, 'Re-Entry Research and Training'.65 K F Gaw, 'Reverse Culture Shock in Students Returning From Overseas', International Journal of Intercultural Relations (Vol. 24, No. 1, 2000), pp. 83–104.66 Nicola T Fear et al., 'What Are the Consequences of Deployment to Iraq 66 Nicola T Fear et al., 'What Are the Consequences of Deployment to Iraq67 Sarah Brabant, Eddie C Palmer and Robert Gramling, 'Returning Home: An Empirical Investigation of Cross- Cultural Reentry', International Journal of Intercultural Relations (Vol. 14, No. 4, 1990), pp. 387–404.68 Michael E Doyle and Kris A Peterson, 'Re-entry and Reintegration: Returning Home after Combat', Psychiatric Quarterly (Vol. 76, No. 4, 2005), pp. 361–70.69 Jennifer Anderson and Christen Mason, 'Reverse Culture Shock: Military Transitions for Returning Soldiers With Traumatic Brain Injury', Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation (Vol. 23, No. 5, 2008), p. 350.70 Marvin J Westwood, Timothy G Black and Holly B McLean, 'A Re-Entry Program for Peacekeeping Soldiers: Promoting Personal and Career Transition', Canadian Journal of Counselling (Vol. 36, No. 3, 2002), pp. 221–32.71 Jennifer Anderson and Christen Mason, 'Reverse Culture Shock', 2009, Slide 3, , accessed 18 September 2014.72 See Adler, 'Re-Entry'. There is anecdotal evidence that the enhanced skill sets with which reservists return to the workplace following deployment have, in some cases, hindered reintegration by creating resentment among former colleagues, especially when the skills and experience acquired have led to accelerated promotion (David McArthur, personal communication, cited with permission).73 John T Cacioppo, Harry T Reis and Alex J Zautra, 'Social Resilience: The Value of Social Fitness with an Application to the Military', American Psychologist (Vol. 66, No. 1, 2011), pp. 43–51.74 Kathleen Tusaie and Janyce Dyer, 'Resilience: A Historical Review of the Construct', Holistic Nursing Practice (Vol. 18, No. 1, 2004), pp. 3–10.75 John T Hogan, 'Culture-Shock and Reverse-Culture Shock: Implications for Juniors Abroad and Seniors at Home', paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American College Personnel Association, Houston, Texas, 13–16 March 1983), quoted in Yumi Miyamoto and Natalie Kuhlman, 'Ameliorating Culture Shock in Japanese Expatriate Children in the US', International Journal of Intercultural Relations (Vol. 25, No. 1, 2001), pp. 21–40.76 See respectively Sverre Lysgaard, 'Adjustment in a Foreign Society: Norwegian Fulbright Grantees Visiting the United States', International Social Sciences Bulletin (Vol. 7, No. 1, 1955), pp. 45–51 and Michael Kim Zapf, 'Remote Practice and Culture Shock: Social Workers Moving to Isolated Northern Regions', Social Work (Vol. 38, No. 6, 1993), pp. 694–704.77 L Stewart and P A Leggat, 'Culture Shock and Travelers', Journal of Travel Medicine (Vol. 5, No. 2, 1998), pp. 84–88.78 Ruth Jolly, Changing Step – From Military to Civilian Life: People in Transition, 1st ed. (London: Brassey's, 1996).79 John T Gullahorn and Jeanne E Gullahorn, 'An Extension of the U-Curve Hypothesis', Journal of Social Issues (Vol. 19, No. 3, 1963), pp. 33–47.80 Kate Berardo, 'The U-Curve of Adjustment: A Study in the Evolution and Evaluation of a 50 Year Old Model', MA thesis, 2006.81 Buckman et al., 'Early Service Leavers'.82 Jolly, Changing Step.83 Anne Braidwood and C Williams, 'Pilot Mentoring Scheme for Early Service Leavers: Report of the Supervisory Group', 2009.84 Ministry of Defence, 'Early Service Leavers'.85 McDermott, 'Struggling on Civvy Street?'.86 Forces in Mind Trust, 'The Transition Mapping Study'.92 Buckman et al., 'Early Service Leavers'.Additional informationNotes on contributorsBeverly P BergmanBeverly Bergman is a doctoral researcher at the Institute of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow. A consultant public health physician, she is a retired Army Colonel and former professor of preventative medicine at the Army Health Unit, Camberley. Her PhD study is on the long-term health of Scottish military veterans.Howard J BurdettHoward Burdett is a post-doctoral researcher based at the King's Centre for Military Health Research, King's College London. He has previously worked at the Surgeon General's Department of the Ministry of Defence. His PhD thesis explored the epidemiology of veterans' transition and the resettlement process, and he currently works on the mental wellbeing of military personnel and their families.Neil GreenbergNeil Greenberg is an academic psychiatrist and Professor of Defence Mental Health, based at King's College London, and is a consultant occupational and forensic psychiatrist. He served in the British armed forces for more than twenty-three years, earning the coveted Royal Marines' Green Beret, and has deployed, as a psychiatrist and researcher, to a number of hostile environments including Afghanistan and Iraq. He has been the Secretary of the European Society for Traumatic Stress Studies and is the President-Elect of the UK Psychological Trauma Society and the Royal College of Psychiatrists' Lead for Military and Veterans Health.
Referência(s)