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Dancing Diplomacy: Martha Graham and the Strange Commodity of Cold-War Cultural Exchange in Asia, 1955 and 1974

2010; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 33; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/01472520903574758

1532-4257

Victoria Phillips Geduld,

Vietnamese History and Culture Studies

Abstract Under the auspices of the State Department during the Cold War, in 1955 and 1974 Martha Graham and her company toured Asia on the heels of hot combat. Because Graham's work was both rooted in Asian forms and inspired by American exceptionalism, it promoted two political messages for export to international elites. First, cultural convergences—sets and movement vocabulary with roots in Eastern forms—alluded to the viability of political alliances. Second, as an exemplar of modern dance, Graham and her work promoted the United States as a nation with cutting-edge solutions to twentieth-century problems. Government and private-sector planners agreed: "Washington wants to get something for its money." 1 1. "Dance Panel Meeting," International Exchange Program, May 5, 1955, 2, Group II, Series 5, box 101, folder 13–14 (because the meetings are titled both Dance Panel Meeting and Dance Advisory Panel between 1954 and 1963 they will be noted hereafter, "D/APM"), Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs Historical Collection (CU) Records, ca. 1938–1984, Manuscript Collection 468, Special Collections, University of Arkansas Libraries, Fayetteville, AR (hereafter UAK). The genius of Graham's artistic modernism, threaded with American nationalism, was used as a weapon in the Cold War. Acknowledgments The project would not have begun without Ethel Winter, former principal dancer with the Martha Graham Dance Company, and her husband, Charlie Hyman, the stage manager on the 1955 tour. They carried their papers up from their basement and remained patient as I asked question after naïve question. I relied on the expertise and good humor of Elizabeth Aldrich, Library of Congress, who wedged open the Martha Graham Collection to scholars. The work began as a seminar paper under Victoria de Grazia, and advisors Eric Foner, Lynn Garafola, Carol Gluck, Alice Kessler Harris, and Anders Stephanson contributed invaluable comments and advice. The George Washington University's Elliott School of International Affairs, Hope Harrison and Gregg Brazinski, have provided support through conferences and the Summer Institute on Conducting Archival Research. Comments from Professor Yu Qun, Northeast China Normal University, offered excellent guidance during the U.S.-China Doctoral Forum, August 2009, George Washington University. The paper benefited significantly from comments by Marilyn Young and Kevyne Barr at New York University's Center for the United States and the Cold War. Many ideas were solidified by the dialogue among students and professors at Aarhus University's summer program, "Transnational Perspectives on Contemporary History: Americanization, Cold War, and Foreign Aid." In addition, parts of the work have been presented at Society of Dance History Scholars conferences, and I wish to thank those who have so generously contributed to my thinking, particularly Joellen Meglin. Naima Prevots provided wise council and graciously shared documents. Archivists at the University of Arkansas, particularly Vera Ekechukwu, and at the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library, Mark Fischer, Anne-Louise Mittal, Maggie Hughes, Christian Goos, have been a pleasure to work with. I wish to thank the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts, Charles Perrier, the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, the National Archives at College Park, and the National Security Archive. Janet Eilber, artistic director of the Martha Graham Dance Company, and LaRue Allen provided enduring guidance and support. Finally, I have relied on the members of the company, both past and present, who bring Graham's choreography and history to life, particularly Mary Hinkson, Jennifer DePalo, and Oliver Tobin. Although there are many to thank for their support, the errors in the work are mine exclusively. This article is dedicated to the memory of Francis Mason, Pearl Lang, Charlie Hyman, and Matt Turney. Notes 1. "Dance Panel Meeting," International Exchange Program, May 5, 1955, 2, Group II, Series 5, box 101, folder 13–14 (because the meetings are titled both Dance Panel Meeting and Dance Advisory Panel between 1954 and 1963 they will be noted hereafter, "D/APM"), Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs Historical Collection (CU) Records, ca. 1938–1984, Manuscript Collection 468, Special Collections, University of Arkansas Libraries, Fayetteville, AR (hereafter UAK). 2. Naima Prevots, Dance for Export: Cultural Diplomacy and the Cold War (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1998), 8. 3. Mao Zedong, "The Chinese People Have Stood Up!," Opening Address by Mao Zedong, Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, at the First Plenary Session of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, September 21, 1949, http://www.international.ucla.edu/eas/documents/mao490921.htm (accessed November 4, 2009); David Halberstam, The Coldest Winter: America and the Korean War (New York: Hyperion, 2007), 631–33. 4. Prevots, Dance for Export, 44; Chris Tudda, The Rhetorical Diplomacy of Dwight D. Eisenhower and John Foster Dulles (Baton Rouge: University of Louisiana Press, 2006), 59. 5. Marilyn B. Young, The Vietnam Wars, 1945–1990 (New York: Harper Collins, 1991), 300–01. 6. "To: CU, Mr. Fox, From: Department of State," April 23, 1974, Group II, Series 2, Subseries 1, box 65, folder 3, UAK (hereafter Box 65-UAK). 7. "Martha Graham Company Opens Engagement September 12," Philippines Daily Express, September 9, 1974, folder 5, Box 65-UAK. 8. Kenneth Osgood, "Introduction," in Total Cold War: Eisenhower's Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2006), 1–14. 9. Robert H. Haddow, Pavilions of Plenty: Exhibiting American Culture Abroad in the 1950s (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1997), 36, 37; Victoria de Grazia, Irresistible Empire: America's Advance Through Twentieth-Century Europe (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006). 10. Serge Guilbaut, How New York Stole the Idea of Modern Art: Abstract Expressionism, Freedom, and the Cold War, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985); Michael Nelson, War of the Black Heavens: The Battles of Western Broadcasting in the Cold War (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1997); Penny Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005); Lisa E. Davenport, Jazz Diplomacy: Promoting America in the Cold War Era (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 2009); "American National Ballet Theatre," to Connelly, Hasset, Webb, from Blevins Davis, attachment to letter to The President of the United States, June 13, 1950. Funding decisions were made by Sheppard Stone, among others, Deputy Director, Office of Public Affairs, box 7, folder 4, Robert Breen Theater Collection (ANTA), Special Collections & Archives, George Mason University Libraries, Fairfax, VA (hereafter RBTC). Volker Berghahn places Stone at the center of his narrative, America and the Intellectual Cold Wars in Europe (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001). 11. Donald Moore, "Report on A.N.T.A. Presentations in Singapore," [nd], Scrapbooks, box 329, Martha Graham Collection, Library of Congress, Music Division, Washington, D.C. (hereafter MGC-LOC). Moore notes that 0.2% of the population would be exposed to Martha Graham; "Project Consideration for the Advisory Commission on the Arts," [nd], 1, Group II, Series 4, box 94, folder 11, UAK. 12. Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: Public Affairs, 2004); Graham's work tapped into the East Coast visions of a new art that reflected Henry Luce's vision of a new "American Century" in Asia (Robert E. Herzstein, "Introduction," in Henry R. Luce, Time, and the American Crusade in Asia [New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006]). 13. "One Day Conference on Problems of Achieving an Adequate Overseas U.S. Information Program," Massachusetts Institute of Technology, December 17, 1954, Record Group 59, Central Decimal Files (hereafter RG and CDF), box 2070, folder 5–355, 13, National Archives, College Park, MD (hereafter NARAII). 14. Robert J. McMahon, The Cold War on the Periphery (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994; reprint 1996). 15. John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 208; W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1960). 16. Nils Gilman, Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003; reprint, 2007), 1. 17. "Martha Graham and Dance Company," box 3, folder 7 (Iran), Helen McGehee and Umaña Collection of Dance Materials, Music Division, LOC (hereafter HMcG-LOC); Roland Marchand, Creating the Corporate Soul: The Rise of Public Relations and Corporate Imagery in American Big Business (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 303. 18. "Graham's Dances 'Pruned Down' Classics," Stars and Stripes, October 19, 1955, box 37, folder 4, Bertram Ross Collection (hereafter BRC), New York Public Library for the Performing Arts, Jerome Robbins Dance Division, New York City (hereafter NYPL-DD). 19. "Dear Gladys, signed Martha," from Santa Barbara, CA, August 23, 1946, typewritten, box 1, folder 1945, Correspondence, Erick Hawkins Collection, LOC (hereafter EHC-LOC). 20. "Project Title: Martha Graham Dance Troupe; Description: (Completed)," National Security Council Staff Papers, Operations Coordinating Board (OCB) Central File Series, Cultural Presentations Staff: Papers, 1948–1961, President's Fund Program [FY1955], box 14, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum, Abilene, KS. 21. Walter Terry, "Martha Graham: Forever Modern," World Journal Tribune, February 19, 1967, Scrapbooks, box 364, MGC-LOC. 22. Correspondence, folder 4, Box 65-UAK. 23. "To State Department, from Embassy (Jakarta)," 1974, box 198, folder 14, MGC-LOC; identical memo, folder 6, Box 65-UAK. 24. Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 1979); Alexandra Munroe, The Third Mind: American Artists Contemplate Asia, 1860–1989 (New York: Guggenheim Museum, 2009), 27; Natalie E. Quli, "Western Self, Asian Other: Modernity, Authenticity, and Nostalgia for 'Tradition' in Buddhist Studies," in Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 16 (2009): 1–39. 25. Jane Sherman, Denishawn: The Enduring Influence (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1983), 36; Suzanne Shelton, Divine Dancer: A Biography of Ruth St. Denis (New York: Doubleday, 1981), 190. 26. Jane Sherman, The Drama of Denishawn Dance (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1979), Appendix B, 165, 67. 27. Frederick Jackson Turner, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" (1893), in Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner: "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" and Other Essays, ed. Mark Faragher (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1994), 31, 32. Note that historians find the origins of exceptionalism in Alexis de Tocqueville's Democracy in America (De la démocratie en Amérique, [1835 and 1840]) with the lineage including Turner; both authors have become vital in an understanding of the United States and international history (Ian Tyrrell, "American Exceptionalism in an Age of International History," The American Historical Review, 96.4 [October 1991], 1031, fn 2). 28. Faragher, "A Nation Thrown Back Upon Itself," in Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner, 2. 29. Sherman, Denishawn, 64. 30. Ted Shawn, The American Ballet (New York: Henry Holt, 1926), 14. 31. Don McDonagh, Martha Graham: A Biography (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1973), 10, 4. 32. Martha Hill, "Interview with Martha Hill," March 30, 1983, conducted by Agnes de Mille (cassette 1 of 2, 55 of 100 min.), NYPL-DD. 33. Martha Graham, "Seeking an American Art of the Dance," in Revolt in the Arts: A Survey of the Creation, Distribution and Appreciation of Art in America, ed. Oliver M. Sayler (New York: Brentano's, 1930), 255. 34. Janet Soares, Louis Horst: A Musician in a Dancer's World (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1992), 69. 35. Munroe, The Third Mind, 112–113, 120. 36. Ibid., 387. 37. "The American National Theatre and Academy: Chartered by the Congress," July 1936, box 34, folder 3, RBTC. 38. "Inter-American Beginnings of U.S. Cultural Diplomacy, 1936–1948," J. Manuel Espinosa, Group XIV, Series 1, box 308, folder 3, UAK. 39. Debra Hickenlooper Sowell, Christensen Brothers: An American Dance Epic (London: Routledge, 1998), 196; see also Prevots, Dance for Export, 19. 40. Nicholas J. Cull, The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy, 1945–1989 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 311; Laura A. Belmonte, Selling the American Way: U.S. Propaganda and the Cold War (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), 38. 41. "Martha Graham, Photographs of Notable Personalities, compiled 1942–1945," Photographs and other Graphic Materials from the Office for Emergency Management, OWI, Overseas Operations Branch, New York Office, News and Features Bureau (12/17/1942–09/15/1945), RG 208, NARAII. 42. "Dear Gladys, signed Martha." 43. George F. Kennan, "The Charge in the Soviet Union (Kennan) to the Secretary of State," received February 22, 1946, http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/coldwar/documents/episode-1/kennan.htm (accessed November 9, 2009); Harry S. Truman, "The Truman Doctrine," March 12, 1947, http://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/nsf50/truman_state.htm (accessed November 4, 2009). 44. Alan L. Heil Jr. and Alan L. Heil, Voice of America: A History (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), 35; Cull, The Cold War and the United States Information Agency, 14; Belmonte, Selling the American Way, 23. 45. Prevots, Dance for Export, 19. 46. Richard H. Pells, The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Age: American Intellectuals in the 1940s and 1950s (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1985; reprint, Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1989), 122–23. 47. "Statement of Representative Jacob J. Javits (R-N.Y.)," March 4, 1949, box 3, folder 34, 2, RBTC. 48. John Martin, "The Dance: Program," New York Times, June 1, 1947, 10 (hereafter NYT). 49. "Walter Terry, Chairman, to Morton Baum," on the Letterhead of the Continuations Committee of the American Dance Committee of the Youth Festival, December 15, 1947, folder 266, Morton Baum Papers, 1938–1968, NYPL-DD. 50. "World Youth Festival" in The Bright Face of Peace (New York: World Festival of Youth and Students for Peace and Friendship, 1947), file folder, "Publications relating to World Festival of Youth and Students for Peace and Friendship," Elmer Holms Bobst Library, Tamiment Library and Robert F. Wagner Archives, New York University; Board Meetings–1946, New Dance Group Collection, LOC (uncatalogued). 51. "World Youth Festival" in The Bright Face of Peace, 17, 19. 52. "Red Issue Splits Youth Delegates," NYT, October 7, 1947, 5; "World Youth Festival" in The Bright Face of Peace, 19; "Rift of U.S. Group in Budapest Noted," NYT, September 3, 1949, 3. 53. Box 2, folder 1, and box 4, folder 2, for plans and reactions sent to the Department of State by Robert Schnitzer regarding American National Ballet Theatre (Robert C. Schnitzer Collection, Special Collections & Archives, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA [hereafter RSTC]). 54. Alex C. Ewing, Bravura!: Lucia Chase and the American Ballet Theatre (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2009), 168; box 2, folder 1, and box 4, folder 2, RSTC. 55. "Memorandum: Blevins Davis to Thomas K. Finletter 6/15/50 re: ANBT"; "Memorandum: Geneva to Department of State, 10/2/50 re: ANBT"; "Letter, Chapin to Secretary of State, 11/04/50"; "Letter, Tyler to Department of State, 04/10/50," Mason Archival Repository Service, Special Collections, George Mason University, http://u2.gmu.edu:8080/dspace/index.jsp (accessed October 8, 2009); Bureau of Public Affairs: International Educational Exchange Service, RG 59, box 1, folder "American National Theatre," NARA II. 56. "To Robert Breen, Blevins Davis, from Robert Schnitzer," November 22, 1950, box 2, folder 1, RSTC. 57. "Trumans Pose with Women Award Winners," Chicago Daily Tribune, April 16, 1950, 7. 58. "Martha Graham to Eric Hawkins," handwritten and undated, box 3 of 3, folder 1939–1940; "From Martha Graham to Erick Hawkins," typewritten, August 1946, EHC-LOC. 59. "Martha Graham to Mrs. Wickes," Frances G. Wickes Foundation, Manuscript Division, LOC (hereafter WFP-LOC). 60. "To the State Department, from USIA," despatch no. 6, unsigned, received October 1, 2008, reference #NWCT2R-CB-08–10292 from Connie Beach, Archives II Section, Textual Reference Division, NARAII, courtesy of Victoria Thoms. 61. Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower: Soldier and President (New York: Touchstone, 1990), 544. 62. Walter L. Hixton, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, 1945–1961 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997), 25. 63. "Terms of Reference for Working Group on Cultural Activities," October 8, 1954, DDRS. 64. "Summary of progress report on activities of the Operations Coordinating Board Cultural Presentation Committee covering period 1/1–6/30/55," July 13, 1955; "Memorandum for Members of the OCB Cultural Presentations Committee," September 21, 1955, all DDRS. 65. "Progress Report on Activities of the OCB Trade Fair Committee," February 28, 1956, DDRS. 66. Belmonte, Selling the American Way, 65. 67. "A Brief on the Work of the American National Theatre and Academy (ANTA)," March 1950, box 1, folder 36, 4, RBTC. 68. "Special State Department-Joint Panel Meeting," January 17, 1963. Terry, Hill, and Hyman R. Faine remained on the Dance Advisory Panel well through 1963, although Kirstein and Chase had departed. The CPC had become the Office of Cultural Presentations, and other State Department and International Exchange Program shifts were evident. Of most importance is the increase from one temporary representative of the State Department in 1957 to a panel of four senior representatives by 1963. 69. "D/APM," April 7, 1955, 1. 70. "D/APM," October 21, 1954, 1–2. 71. "D/APM," November 15, 1956, for the first example. 72. "USIS Report, Djkarta/Medan/Surabaya," December 9, 1955, box 11, folder 4, BRC. 73. "Circular USIA–Confidential," February 10, 1955, RG 59, CDF, box 2070, folder 1–75, NARAII. 74. "President Dwight D. Eisenhower, 5 April 1955, Washington appointments with D. Anderson (off the record); J. M. Dodge; R. Dowling, H. A. Inness-Brown, T. C. Streibert, and R. McIlvaine; J. E. Jacobs; R. Keyes. Hosts luncheon for members of John Marshall Bicentennial Commission. To Burning Tree Country Club for golf with E. N. Eisenhower and J. Westland." Special thanks to Valoise Armstrong, Archivist, Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kans. No meeting minutes have been located, http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/presidential-papers/first-term/chronology/1955–04.htm. 75. "D/APM," April 7, 1955, 1. 76. Osgood, Total Cold War. 77. Bertram Ross, "Martha (Draft)" [nd], box 10, folder 10, BRC. 78. "D/APM," October 21, 1954, 1. 79. "D/APM," December 7, 1954, 2; January 13, 1955, 2; February 10, 1955, 1. 80. "Correspondence–Tour Operations," box 10, folder 10, RBTC. 81. "D/APM," May 5, 1955, 2. 82. Budgets were under constant negotiation. In the International Exchange Program's ANTA memo, "Progress Report No. 14 [May 25, 1955]," the Graham tour is estimated with a total budget of $200,000; this number reaches over $300,000 with some adjustments taking place to meet local needs on the ground. Kirstein noted four financial adjustments for dance companies over two years ("D/APM," February 21, 1957, 2).These same negotiations were also evident in other deployments (Hixson, Parting the Curtain, 137). 83. "A Study of USIA Operating Assumptions," December 1954, "Records of the United States Information Agency (USIA), Office of Research, Special Reports, 1953–63," RG 306, box 7, NARAII. 84. "Psychological Aspects of United States Strategy, Panel Report, Secret, 21," RG 59, CDF, box 2071, folder 1–235, NARAII. 85. "Comments on Outline Plan of Operations for United States Ideological Program," RG 59, CDF, box 2073, folder 7–155, NARAII. 86. "To: State Department, From Amcongen, Damascus," RG 59, CDF, box 1047. 87. John Martin, "The Dance: Artist and Audience," NYT, December 27, 1931, 94. 88. "To the State Department, From USIA." 89. "Need for American Professional Performers to Supplement USIS Program," Foreign Service Despatch 511.91, May 15, 1952, RG 59, box 26, NARAII. 90. Helen McGehee, "Our Recent Dance Tour" [nd], 3, box 10, folder 10, HMcG-LOC. 91. Scrapbooks, box 334 and 338, MGC-LOC. 92. "LeRoy Leatherman to Mrs. Wickes," FWP-LOC. 93. "Martha Graham to Mrs. Wickes," FWP-LOC. 94. "LeRoy Leatherman to Mrs. Wickes," FWP-LOC. 95. Geir Lundestad, "Empire by Invitation?: The United States and Western Europe, 1945–1952," Journal of Peace Research 23.3 (September 1986): 263–77. 96. Robert J. McMahon, The Cold War on the Periphery (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), 183–84, n. 76, 380. 97. "One Day Conference on Problems of Achieving an Adequate Overseas U.S. Information Program," 13. 98. "D/APM," May 5, 1954. 99. "Foreign Service Digest–Unofficial USIS, Djakarta," marked "Republication Prohibited, VIII- #146, 2"; "USIS Report," December 9, 1955, box 11, folder 5, BRC. The digest quotes local newspaper articles. 100. "Dancing in the East and West," January 3, 1956, Scrapbooks, box 334, MGC-LOC. 101. "Foreign Service Digest"; "Progress Report on the Activities of the OCB Cultural Presentation Committee," October 4, 1956, DDRS. 102. "Dancing in the East and West." 103. "Foreign Service Digest." 104. "Progress Report on the Activities of the OCB Cultural Presentation Committee," October 4, 1956, DDRS. 105. "Progress Report on Activities of the OCB Cultural Presentations Committee," July 13, 1956, 5, DDRS. 106. "Appalachian Spring: Piano Rehearsal Copy No. 2," box 10, MGC-LOC. 107. Programs, Ethel Winter and Charles Hyman Collection, Music Division, LOC (hereafter W/H-LOC). The Finding Aid for this collection including box and folder numbers will be available in 2010. 108. Quotes from Graham, "Dance Libretto," box 35, MGC-LOC. 109. Haim Ganzu, "The Choreographic Art of Martha Graham," Haarets, February 24, 1956, Scrapbooks, box 337, MGC-LOC. 110. "Library Readership Study Conducted in India," February 5, 1953, 4, enclosure 1, from New Delhi, "Reports and Studies, 1948–53, India and Iran," box 32; "Some Clarification of the Word 'Americana,'" New Deli India Despatch No. 1442, December 19, 1952, "Reports and Studies, 1948–53, India and Iran," all RG 306, box 32, NARAII. 111. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism Since 1780, 10, 12. 112. Programs, W/H-LOC. 113. A Ballet Critic, "Martha Graham's Dance Recital," The Statesman, December 28, 1955, Scrapbooks, box 334, MGC-LOC. 114. "D/APM," April 7, 1955; May 5, 1955. Russian-born George Balanchine was a key player in the government project to export dance from 1941, giving these discussions an ironic twist. 115. Belmonte, Selling the American Way, 34; "D/APM," January 13, 1955, 1. 116. Uncatalogued Box, Martha Graham, folder–Calcutta, NYPL-DD. 117. "Martha Graham, Sound Recordings from the USIA, Voice of America (08/01/1953–04/01/1978)," Motion Picture, Sound, and Video Records Section, Special Media Archives Services Division, NARAII; Group XIX, Series 1, tape 38 [nd], side 1, UAK. 118. Belmonte, Selling the American Way, 102. 119. Matthew Connelly, A Diplomatic Revolution: Algeria's Fight for Independence and the Origins of the Post–Cold War Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 211. 120. "Living Goddess of Beauty: Martha Graham," Sunkei Evening, October 24, 1955, bound book, box 336, MGC-LOC. 121. Programs, W/H-LOC. 122. "Proposed Policy Statement regarding ANTA sponsorship of foreign attractions." 123. Graham, Blood Memory, 68. 124. "Graham's Dances 'Pruned Down' Classics." 125. Ibid. 126. William Inboden, Religion and American Foreign Policy, 1945–1960: The Soul of Containment (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 241; see also Osgood, Total Cold War, 55. 127. "Dancer Graham Impresses in Opening," Mainichi Shimbun, November 3, 1955, box 37, folder 4, BRC. 128. LeRoy Leatherman, "On Martha Graham's Symbolism," Programs, W/H-LOC. 129. Graham, Blood Memory, 112, 113. 130. "Graham's Dances 'Pruned Down' Classics"; "Foreign Service Digest." 131. "Martha Graham Show Wins Plaudits in City" [nd], Scrapbooks, box 334, MGC-LOC. 132. Prevots, Dance for Export, 50. 133. The Statesman, January 21, 1956, 1955–1956 Tour, HMcG-LOC. 134. Ibid. 135. Lalita Uberoi, "Martha Graham Good Showmanship, but…" Woman's Viewpoint, Scrapbooks, box 334, MGC-LOC. 136. Prarthana Purkayastha, "Dancing the Revolution," in "Bodies Beyond Borders: Modern Dance in Colonial and Postcolonial India," doctoral dissertation, Roehampton University, London, 2008, 149, 158, 130. 137. Scrapbooks, box 334, MGC-LOC. 138. Purkayastha, "Dancing the Revolution," 141. 139. Janet Eilber, interview by author, February 19, 2009. 140. Purkayastha, "Dancing the Revolution," 166. 141. "Martha Graham to Mrs. Wickes." 142. S. K. Gupta, Elephant in Indian Art and Mythology (New Delhi: Abhinav Publications, 1990); Devdutt Pattanaik, Indian Mythology: Tales, Symbols, and Rituals from the Subcontinent (Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions International, 2003), 187. 143. "Progress Report on Activities of the OCB Cultural Presentation Committee," October 4, 1956; "Progress Report on Activities of the OCB Cultural Presentation Committee," April 16, 1957, all DDRS. 144. "D/APM," January 17, 1957, 2. 145. "D/APM," April 25, 1957, 1, 3, 5, 6, 7. 146. "D/APM," June 20, 1957, 2. 147. "D/APM," October 17, 1957. 148. "D/APM," November 17, 1955. 149. "D/APM," March 1, 1956, 3; January 19, 1956, 2. 150. McGehee, "Our Recent Dance Tour," 1. 151. Harry Gilroy, "Berlin Observes Culture of U.S.," NYT, September 29, 1957, Scrapbooks, box 340, MGC-LOC. 152. "From Joint State-USIA, to Berlin USITO, [June 13, 1957], re: September Congress Hall Events," RG 59, CDF, box 2186, folder 4–455, NARA II; Scrapbooks box 340, MGC-LOC; Leonard Mosley, Dulles: A Biography of Eleanor, Allen, and John Foster Dulles and Their Family Network (New York: Dial Press, 1978), 344, 452. 153. "To Miss Martha Graham, from Eric Johnson, The White House, Washington DC," February 4, 1958, Scrapbooks, box 343, MGC-LOC. 154. According to Francis Mason, former Cultural Attaché to Yugoslavia, Kennan hosted a large modern art exhibition in Belgrade; George Kennan, "Remarks at Opening of Art Exhibit, Belgrade, 1961 September 15," box 302, folder 23, The George F. Kennan Papers, 1871–2005, Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ. 155. Francis Mason, interview by author, August 15, 2008. 156. Shih Chieh Jit Pao, September 27, 1974, folder 6, Box 65-UAK. 157. Philippine Evening Express, September 7, 1974, folder 5, Box 65-UAK. 158. Ross, "Martha (Draft)." 159. Folder 6, Box 65-UAK; Scrapbooks, box 373, MGC-LOC. 160. "Some Distinguishing Characteristics of the Graham Company," [1974], folder 2, Box 65-UAK. 161. "To State Department, From American Embassy, Philippines," box 198, MGC-LOC. 162. Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World, 186. 163. Janet Eilber, interview by author, March 2008. 164. President Gerald R. Ford, "Remarks Upon Presenting the Presidential Medal of Freedom to Miss Martha Graham [p. 4]" October 14, 1976, Presidential Speeches: Reading Copies, Gerald R. Ford Library, Ann Arbor, MI. 165. "To President Ford, From Kissinger," [nd], folder 2, Box 65-UAK; Group XIV, box 344, folders 2–3, UAK, for Kissinger's papers on cultural programs. 166. "To Ms Martha Graham, From Han Xu," Ambassador of People's Republic of China to the United States, 1985–1989, box 398, folder 75, MGC-LOC.