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A Cross-National Study of Accommodating and “Usurpatory” Practices by Women Architects in the UK, Spain and France

2012; Routledge; Volume: 17; Issue: 2-3 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/13264826.2012.732588

1755-0475

Valerie Caven, Elena Navarro-Astor, Marie Diop,

Gender Diversity and Inequality

Abstract The precarious position of women in architecture is well documented, but previous work has focused on single-country analyses, which, although valuable, do not allow the transfer of ideas or aid a deeper understanding of practice. Drawing on data obtained from 66 in-depth semi-structured qualitative interviews carried out with women architects in three European countries, the UK, Spain and France, we report on the "usurpatory" strategies and instances of resigned accommodation of female architects practising in different political, social and economic systems. Our findings show stark differences in the experiences of the women in each country, with Spanish women identifying greater levels of overt discrimination, the French women enjoying greater levels of equality and the UK women adopting a broad range of "usurpatory" strategies. Notes Bridget Fowler and Fiona M. Wilson, "Women Architectsand Their Discontents", Sociology, 38, no. 1, 2004, 101–119. Annmarie Adams and Peta Tancred, Designing Women: Gender and the Architectural Profession, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000, 21–35; Ann de Graft-Johnson, Sandra Manley and Clara Greed, "Why do Women Leave Architecture?", Royal Institute of British Architects/University of West of England Research Project, London: RIBA, 2003, 1–55. Katherine Sang, Andrew Dainty, and Stephen Ison, "Gender: A Risk Factor for Occupational Stress in the Architecture Profession?", Construction Management and Economics, 25, no. 12 (December 2007), 1305–1317; Valerie Caven, "Career Building: Women and Non-standard Employment in Architecture", Construction Management and Economics, 24, no. 5 (2006), 457–464; Valerie Caven, "Choice, Diversity and 'False Consciousness' in Women's Careers", International Journal of Training and Develpment, 10, no. 1 (2006), 41–52; Patricia Molina, y Begoña Laquidáin, "Arquitectura y Género: Situación y Perspectiva de las Mujeres Arquitectas en el Ejercicio Profesional", Consejo Superior de los Colegios de Arquitectos de España, 2009, http://www.cscae.com/congresodearquitectos2009/images/stories/ponencias/pmolina_resumen_comunicacion.pdf (accessed 12 September 2012). Olivier Chadoin, "La Féminisation de la Profession d'Architecte", Centre des Ressources du Réseau de la Recherche Architecturale et Urbaine, 1998, http://www.ramau.archi.fr/spip.php?article81 (accessed 23 October 2011); Nathalie Lapeyre, "Les Femmes Architectes: Entre Créativité et Gestion de la Quotidienneté", EMPAN, 1, no. 53 (2004), 48–55. Fowler and Wilson, "Women Architects and Their Discontents", 107. Fowler and Wilson, "Women Architects and Their Discontents", 103. Fowler and Wilson, "Women Architects and Their Discontents", 107. Pierre Bourdieu, Masculine Domination, Cambridge: Polity, 2001, 3. Barrington Kaye, The Development of the Architectural Profession in Britain, London: George Allen and Unwin, 1960, 32; Frank Salmon, "British Architects, Italian Fine Arts Academies and the Foundations of the RIBA, 1816–43", Architectural History, 39, (1996), 77–113: Salmon provides a comprehensive discussion of the role that the Italian academies played in the development of architectural education in the UK, leading to the formation of the Royal Institute of British Architects. Françoise Marquart and Christian de Montlibert, "Division du Travail et Concurrence en Architecture", Revue Française de Sociologie, 11, no. 3 (1970), 368–389. Catherine Wilkinson, "The New Professionalism in theRenaissance", in Spiro Kostof (ed.), The Architect: Chapters in the History of the Profession, Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 2000, 124–160. Consejo Superior de los Colegios de Arquitectos de España email to authors sent on 16 November 2011. The number of registered architects in France is aspublished by Conseil National de l'Ordre des Architectes (CNOA, the professional body representing French architects) for 2010, http://www.architectes.org (accessed 23 November 2011). Its counterpart in the UK is the Royal Institute of British Architects, which is the source for the number of registered architects there in 2010, www.architecture.org (accessed 23 November 2011). See Luiz Fernández-Galiano, "Spanish Architecture: A Family Portrait", Journal of Architectural Education, 45, no. 4 (1992), 235–240; Emilio Luque, "Informe Arquitectos: Encuesta Sobre el Estado de la Profesión", Consejo Superior de Colegios de Arquitectos de España, 2007, http://fundacion.arquia.es/media/encuestas/downloads/informes/informe_encuesta_profesionales_2007.pdf (accessed 13 September 2012); Emilio Luque, "Informe Sobre el Estado de la Profesión", Consejo Superior de Colegios de Arquitectos de España, October 2009, http://fundacion.arquia.es/media/encuestas/downloads/informes/informe_encuesta_profesionales_2009.pdf (accessed 13 September 2012). Olivier Chadoin and Thérèse Evette, Statistiques de laProfession d'Architecte 1998–2007: Socio-démographie et Activités Économiques, Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication, Paris, 2010, http://www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/politique-culturelle/MCC_Statistiques%20profession%20architecte_fev_2010.pdf (accessed 17 September 2012). Sarah Lupton (ed.), Architect's Handbook of Practice Management, 7th edn, London: RIBA Publications, 2001, 139–148. Lynne Walker, "Women Architects", in Judy Attfield and Pat Kirkham (eds), A View from the Interior: Feminism, Women and Design, London: The Woman's Press, 1989, 90–108. Walker, "Women Architects", 90–108. Valerie Caven and Marie Diop, "Architecture: A 'Rewarding' Career? An Anglo-French Comparative Study of Intrinsic Rewards in theArchitecture Profession", Construction Management and Economics, 30, no. 7 (2012), 513–523. Chadoin, "La Féminisation de la Profession d'Architecte". Inés Sánchez de Madariaga, "El Papel de las Mujeres en la Arquitectura y el Urbanismo, de Matilde Ucelay a la Primera Generación Universitaria en Paridad", in María A. Leboreiro Amaro (ed.), Arquitectas: Un Reto Profesional: Jornadas Internacionales de Arquitectura y Urbanismo desde la Perspectiva de las Arquitectas, Madrid: Instituto Juan de Herrera, December 2009, 69–77. Mirza and Nacey Research Ltd, The Architectural Profession in Europe 2010, Research commissioned by the Architects' Council of Europe, Brussels, 2010, 2; Spain did not contribute data for this report, but Mirza and Nacey base theirsuggestion on evidence from Eastern European countries. Inez Sánchez de Madariaga, "Women in Architecture: The Spanish Case", Urban Research and Practice, 3, no. 2 (2010), 203–218. Membership numbers are from each of the professional bodies governing the profession in the UK and France: Royal Institute of British Architects, www.architecture.org (accessed 3 December 2011), and Conseil Nationale de l'Ordre des Architectes, www.architectes.org (accessed 3 December 2011); Spanish figures taken from http://www.sindicatoarquitectos.es/ (accessed 7 December 2011). Patricia Molina, y Begoña Laquidáin, Arquitectura y Género, 31. De Graft-Johnson, Manley and Greed, "Why do Women Leave Architecture?", 3. Chadoin, "La Féminisation de la Profession d'Architecte", (accessed 23 October 2011). Inés Sanchez de Madariaga, "Spatial Planning, In Fact Town Planning: From Regulation to Shared Visions", Special issue: "European Spatial Planning: A View from Spain", Quaderns de Política Econòmica, Revista electrónica, 2a época, 6, (Enero-Abril 2004), 62–79. Jose Gimenez-Nadal, Jose Molina and Raquel Ortega, "Self-employed Mothers and Work–Family Conflict", Applied Economics, 44, no. 17 (2012), 2133–2147, http://dae.unizar.es/jamolina/publicaciones/Articulos/Gimenez_Molina_Ortega%20AppEc%20Self_Employment.pdf (accessed 12 September 2012). Gimenez-Nadal, Molina and Ortega, "Self-employed Mothers and Work–Family Conflict", 2142. Sanchez de Madariaga, "Women in Architecture", 217. Nicky Le Feuvre, "Feminising Professions in Britain and France: How CountriesDiffer", in J. Scott, R. Crompton, and C. Lyonette (eds), Gender Inequalities in the 21st Century, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2010, 130. Le Feuvre, "Feminising Professions in Britain and France", 131. Molina and Laquidáin, Arquitectura y Género, 45. Graham Winch and Elizabeth Campagnac, "The Organization of Building Projects: An Anglo-French Comparison", Construction Management and Economics, 13, no. 1 (January 1995), 3–14. This paper reports data that has been collected as part of a much larger project examining the careers of both male and female architects in the UK, France and Spain; for papers drawing on the comparative study, see Caven and Diop, "Architecture: A 'Rewarding' Career?", 513–523; Valerie Caven and Marie Diop, "Women and Equality in Architecture: An Anglo-French Comparative Study", in C. Egbu (ed.), Proceedings of 27th Annual Conference of the Association of Researchers in Construction Management, Bristol, UK: University of the West of England, ARCOM, September 2011, 217–227. Linda Hantrais, "Contextualisation in Cross-national Comparative Research", in Linda Hantrais and Steen Mangen (eds), Cross-national Research Methodology and Practice, Abingdon: Routledge, 2007, 3–18. We use the term, "grounded in theory", to highlight that while we are taking a basic "grounded theory" approach based on Strauss and Corbin (Anselm Strauss and Juliet Corbin, Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1998, 57–71), we are aware of the many criticisms associated with this technique, such as the suspension of awareness of existing theory as suggested by Bulmer (Martin Bulmer, "Concepts in the Analysis of Qualitative Data", Sociological Review, 27, (July 1979), 651–677). See Alan Bryman and Emma Bell, Business Research Methods, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011, 577–584. Elena Navarro-Astor and Valerie Caven, "Architects in Spain: A Profession under Risk", in S. Smith (ed.), Proceedings of 28th Annual Conference of the Association of Researchers in ConstructionManagement, Edinburgh, ARCOM, September 2012, 577–587. Fowler and Wilson, "Women Architects and Their Discontents", 111. Fowler and Wilson, "Women Architects and Their Discontents", 117; Ruth Carter and Gill Kirkup, "Women in Engineering: A Good Place To Be?", Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1990, 99. For example, Le Feuvre, "Feminising Professions in Britain and France", 126–151. Caven and Diop, "Women and Equality in Architecture", 127–227. Fowler and Wilson, "Women Architects and Their Discontents", 114–116. Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction, trans. Richard Nice, London: Routledge, 1984, 466. Ruth Aguilera, "Corporate Governance and Labor Relations: Spain in the European Context", in Andrew Pendleton and Howard Gospel (eds), Corporate Governance and Labour Management: An International Perspective, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004, 197–225. Oscar Rodríguez Ruiz and Miguel Martínez Lucio, "The Study of HRM in Spain: The Americanization of Spanish Research and the Politics of Denial", International Journal of Human Resource Management, 21, no. 1 (2010), 129. Rocio Albert, Lorenzo Escot and Jose Fernández-Cornejo, "A Field Experiment to Study Sex and Age Discrimination in the Madrid Labour Market", The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22, no. 2 (2011), 352–375. Bourdieu, Distinction, 474–475. Bourdieu, Distinction, 476–477.