Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

Religious habits and visual propaganda: the vision of the Blessed Reginald of Orléans

2002; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 28; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1016/s0304-4181(01)00022-7

1873-1279

Cordelia Warr,

Libraries, Manuscripts, and Books

Abstract Shortly before joining the Dominican Order in 1218, the Blessed Reginald of Orléans received a vision of the Virgin Mary in which she presented him with the black and white habit of the Order of Preachers. The vision was represented a surprising number of times in Italian art of the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries by artists including Nicola Pisano, Fra Angelico and Ottaviano Nelli. This article discusses the precise importance of the vision for the Dominican Order by investigating relevant historical, hagiographical and art-historical documentation. The sculpted and painted representations of the Vision of the Blessed Reginald demonstrate the importance of the Dominican habit: both within the Order as a means of imposing discipline, and for the laity as a means of recognition. This is emphasised in certain examples by the omission of Reginald, allowing the habit to be received by Saint Dominic, founder of the Order. The representations of the subject are the visual expression of a concern voiced in written accounts of Dominic's life, in General Chapters, and in other Dominican writings, as well as in the tantalising scraps of information that survive regarding the efforts made to ensure that no one order visually resembled another. Keywords: Dominic (Saint)VisionsReligious habitVirgin Acknowledgments Research for this article was made possible by a Leverhulme Trust Study Abroad Scholarship. Material in it was originally presented as part of a paper in the History of Art Seminar Series at the British School at Rome in April 1997. In writing this article I have benefited from the advice of a number of people. My first thanks go to Professor Julian Gardner for his unstinting support and encouragement. I would also like to thank Professor John Osborne, Father Simon Tugwell, and Drs Louise Bourdua, Joanna Cannon, Amanda Collins, and Anthony Lappin. This article is dedicated to Father Reginald Foster and the legendary 'driver of the 64 bus'. Notes 1 Gerard of Frachet, 'Vitae Fratrum', in: Monumenta Ordinis Fratrum Praedicatorum Historica, ed. B.M. Reichert, 1 (Louvain, 1896), 186. For the dating of the work see F.C. Lehner, Saint Dominic. Biographical documents (Washington, 1964), 4. 2 The Dominican Order was given official approval by Pope Honorius III in 1216. G.R. Galbraith, The Constitutions of the Dominican Order 1216–1360 (Manchester, 1925), 35. 3 J. Schmitt, Ghosts in the middle ages. The living and the dead in medieval society (Chicago and London, 1996), 221–222. 4 R. Barthes, The fashion system, trans. M. Ward and R. Howard (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London, 1990), 3–5. 5 I have considered it to be outside the scope of this art-historical paper to give an exhaustive account of texts that include the Vision of the Blessed Reginald. Instead, I have chosen to concentrate on important aspects of the evolution of the written version of the legend. A brief consideration of the main thirteenth-, fourteenth- and fifteenth-century lives of Saint Dominic can be found in S. Tugwell, "Notes on the Life of Saint Dominic", Archivum Fratrum Praedicatorum, 65 (1995), 5–169, Appendix A. An overview of the thirteenth century lives is provided by Lehner, Saint Dominic, 1–5. 6 Jordan of Saxony, "Libellus de principiis Ordinis Praedicatorum", ed. and intro. D.H.C. Scheeben, in: MOPH, 16, fasc. 2 (Rome, 1935), 1–88. This ref. 51–52. An English translation of the text is published in Lehner, Saint Dominic, 5–89. I have followed Lehner's dating of the text although Father Simon Tugwell believes it to have been composed earlier. 7 Jordan of Saxony, 'Libellus', 57: sed non sine divini virtute miraculi. 8 Peter of Ferrand, 'Legenda Sancti Dominici', ed. and intro. R.P.M. Hyacinthi Laurent, in: MOPH, 16, fasc. 2 (Rome, 1935), 197–260. For the Vision, see 234–236. The date is that provided by Tugwell, 'Notes', 147. 9 Peter of Ferrand, 'Legenda', 235: En, hic est habitus ordinis tui. 10 Constantine of Orvieto, 'Legenda Sancti Dominici', ed. and intro. D.H.C. Scheeben, in: MOPH, 16, fasc. 2 (Rome, 1935), 203–352. For the Vision, see 308–309. 11 Constantine of Orvieto, 'Legenda', 308. 12 Humbert of Romans, 'Legenda Sancti Dominici', ed. and intro. R.P. Walz, in: MOPH, 16, fasc. 2 (Rome, 1935), 355–433. For the Vision, see 394–396. 13 Jacobus de Voragine (James of Varazze), The Golden Legend, trans. William Granger Ryan, 2 vols. (Princeton, 1993), vol. 1, 49–50. 14 Galuagnus de la Flamma (Galvano Fiamma), 'Cronica Ordinis Praedicatorum ab anno 1170 usque ad 1333', ed. B.M. Reichert, in: MOPH, 2, fasc. 1 (Rome, 1897), 14. For the dating of the compilation, see i–ii. 15 Theodoric of Apolda, 'Vita Sancti Dominici', in: Acta Sanctorum, August, vol. 1, 559–628. This ref. 578: Hic ore Matris Virginis designatus est habitus Praedicatorum Ordinis. 16 Stephen of Salagnac and Bernard Gui, 'De Quator in Quibus Deus Praedicatorum Ordinem insignavit', ed. T. Kaeppeli, in: MOPH, 22 (Rome, 1949), 9–10: habitum, non quem primo ut canonicus tulit, sed quem a beata Virgine fratrem Reginaldum inungente recepit. Stephen of Salagnac died in 1291. His text was later completed by Bernard Gui (d. 1331), who also made some alterations. Father Simon Tugwell, in a forthcoming article on the Blessed Reginald and the Dominican habit, points out the difficulty of using this text due to uncertainty regarding Bernard Gui's interpolations. 17 Stephen of Salagnac, 'De Quator', 157: huius ordinis vestiaria virgo Maria corporaliter visitans ad ingressum ordinis monuit et induxit habitumque nostrum induendum ostendit—quia antea fratres superpelliciis utebantur. 18 Bartholomew of Trent, Der Hl. Dominicus Untersuchungen und Teste, ed. B. Altaner (Breslau, 1922), 230–239. This ref. 233: ante [fratres] superpelliciis utebantur. 19 Annalium Ordinis Praedicatorum, vol. 1 (Rome, 1756), 434–435. 20 M.H. Vicaire O.P., Histoire de Saint Dominique, 2 vols. (Paris, 1957), vol. 1, 105–106. 21 Galbraith, Constitutions, 1. 22 Galbraith, Constitutions, 34. 23 Father Simon Tugwell discusses the possible use of the rochet by the early Dominicans in a forthcoming article. He concludes that the rochet was not widely used by the Dominicans in the first years of the Order. However, it is possible that by the mid-thirteenth century it was widely believed that the Virgin Mary had given a new Dominican habit to Reginald and that part of its newness consisted in the lack of the rochet. 24 I would like to thank Dr Anthony Lappin for allowing me to use unpublished research on the elements that comprise the story and the texts in which they can be found. 25 Of the versions cited the only exception to this is that of Jordan of Saxony. 26 Constantine of Orvieto, 'Legenda', 309: tunc illa manum extendens egrotantis oculos, aures et nares, os quoque et manus, renes et pedes salutari, quam secum detulerat, unctione perunxit, formulas verborum proprias ad singulas unctiones subinferens… 27 Constantine of Orvieto, 'Legenda', 308: Eo (Dominic) igitur in orationibus persistente, ecce subito reginam misericordie, … Reginaldus vigilans et mortem expectans ad se visibiliter venientem aspexit. Peter of Ferrand, 'Legenda', 234: Eo igitur in orationibus persistente, apparuit magistro Reinaldo … beatissima Dei genetrix, mundi Domina, virgo Maria. 28 Roderigo of Cerrato, in: T.M. Mamachi, AOP, vol. 1, Appendix (Rome, 1756), 312–334. This ref. 319: Hoc totum fuit Reginaldo praesentialiter factum, et Beatus Dominico, in oratione positus, vidit. 29 Barthes, The fashion system, 4. 30 For a brief discussion of the Arca, see J. Cannon, 'Dominic alter Christus? Representations of the Founder in and after the Arca di San Domenico', in: Christ among the medieval Dominicans, ed. K. Emery Jr. and J. Warwykow (Notre Dame, 1998), 26–48. This ref. 30–36. 31 G. Kaftal, The iconography of the saints in the Central and South Italian schools of painting (Florence, 1965), cols. 353–364. See also La Pittura in Italia: Il Duecento e il Trecento, vol. 2 (Milan, 1986), 578–579; F. Bologna, I Pittori alla Corte Angioina di Napoli 1266–1414 (Rome, 1969), 59–60, and Cannon, 'Dominic', 47 note 93. 32 C. Brandi, La Regia Pinacoteca di Siena (Rome, 1933), 114. Most recently: P. Torriti, La Pinacoteca Nazionale di Siena. I Dipinti (Genoa, 1990), 16. For a discussion of the choice of the Vision of the Blessed Reginald, see Cannon, 'Dominic', 26–28. Dr. Cannon also draws attention to the way in which this scene emphasises 'divine approbation of the habit'. 33 London National Gallery no. 3417. See Martin Davies, The earlier Italian schools (London, 1956), 35–6. 34 Representations of the Blessed Reginald of Orléans usually also show Saint Dominic. However, the Blessed Reginald appears alone in a late fifteenth-century fresco in Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan gazing up at a tiny figure of the Virgin presenting him with the tunic. See G. Kaftal and F. Bisogni, Iconography of the saints in the painting of North West Italy (Florence, 1985), cols. 565–566. 35 R. van Marle, The development of the Italian schools of painting, vol. 8 (The Hague, 1927), 338 and Fig. 223. 36 For the attribution to Nelli, see L. Asioli, La Chiesa di San Domenico a Fano (Fano, 1910), 25. Asioli believed that some of the frescoes were executed by Nelli's pupils. Also U. Gnoli, 'Affreschi di Nelli in Fano', in: Rassegna d'Arte Umbra, 2, 1911, 10–15. Further information on Nelli can be obtained from La Pittura in Italia. Il Quattrocento (Milan, 1987), 715. 37 The source of this scene is probably Gerard of Frachet, 'Vitae Fratrum', 5–10. 38 Asioli, La Chiesa di San Domenico, 25–28. 39 This can be convincingly related to the stress which the Augustinian Hermits laid on the supposed vestition of Saint Augustine. On one aspect of this, see L. Bourdua, 'De Origine et Progressu Ordinis Fratrum Heremitarum: Guariento and the Eremitani in Padua', in: Papers of the British School at Rome, 66 (1998), 177–192. I will be discussing Augustinian iconography relating to the habit in a forthcoming article. 40 A.M. Maetzke, Il Museo Diocesano di Cortona (Florence, 1992), 76–81. See also J. T. Spike, Fra Angelico (New York, London, Paris, 1997), 196 and J. Pope-Hennessy, Fra Angelico (London, 1952), 167–168. 41 Although the Vision of the Blessed Reginald is present in a high percentage of cycles of the life of Saint Dominic, he is not shown in the mural scenes at Arezzo or Bevagna, nor is the Vision contained in the Pisa Polyptych by Francesco Traini. I would like to thank Dr. Joanna Cannon for this information. G. Kaftal, Saint Dominic in early Tuscan painting (Oxford, 1948), provides an overview of Tuscan cycles of Saint Dominic. 42 For a discussion of the original position of the panels, see J. Cannon and A. Vauchez, Margherita of Cortona and the Lorenzetti. Sienese art and the cult of a holy woman in medieval Tuscany (Pennsylvania, 1999), 65–66, 152, 169 note 56. 43 'Acta Capitulorum Generalium ab anno 1380 ad annum 1498', ed. B.M. Reichert, in: MOPH, 4, vol. 3 (Rome, 1900), 387. 44 Edward Tracey Brett, Humbert of Romans. His life and views of thirteenth century society (Toronto, 1984), 106. 45 'Acta Capitulorum Generalium ab anno 1220 ad annum 1303', ed. B.M. Reichert, in: MOPH, 4, vol. 1 (Rome, 1898), 92: Fratres non emant sibi pannum pro vestibus, sed per manum vestiarii omnibus ematur. 46 Brett, Humbert, 126. 47 'Acta Capitulorum …ab anno 1380 ad annum 1498', 323: Quia uniformitas morum et habitus nobis primus nostrarum constitucionem fronte mandatur, adversus quam multifarie per multos irreligiose contravenitur…. 48 For Dominican General Chapters between 1220 and 1498, see 'Acta Capitulorum Generalium', in: MOPH, 4, vols. 1–3, ed. B. M. Reichert (Rome, 1898–1900). In General Chapters between 1220 and 1498 the habit was mentioned in 1236, 1239 to 1243 inclusive, 1246, 1249 to 1252 inclusive, 1254 to 1265 inclusive, 1268, 1273 to 1276 inclusive, 1280, 1283, 1285 to 1288 inclusive, 1290, 1294, 1297, 1298, 1305 to 1310 inclusive, 1315, 1323, 1328, 1331, 1332, 1334, 1341, 1342, 1348, 1350, 1353, 1355, 1357 to 1363 inclusive, 1365, 1370, 1378, 1431, 1434, 1439, 1451, 1456, 1468, 1470, 1484 and 1498. 49 For a discussion of the functions and powers of the General Chapter, see Galbraith, Constitutions, 85–109. 50 Galbraith, Constitutions, 34 and 109–110. 51 Galbraith, Constitutions, 184. 52 H. Denifle, 'Die Constitutionem des Prediger—Ordens vom J. 1228', Archiv für Litteratur und Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters, 1 (Berlin, 1885), 165–364. This ref. 204–205: Tunice circa cavillam pedis sufficit ut descendant, quibus cappa brevior sit et etiam pellicium. Scapularia nostra circa cooperturam genuum sufficit ut descendant. 53 For example, in Toulouse in 1328 the heads of the provinces and the convents were called upon to ensure that friars wear the proper habit. This exhortation was repeated four years later in the General Chapter held at Dijon in 1332 and was also recalled very closely in the admonitiones of the General Chapter at Avignon in 1341. See 'Acta Capitulorum … ab anno 1304 ad annum 1378', 179: Imponimus, quod provinciales in suis provinciis et conventuales in suis conventibus cum omni diligencia studeant reducere fratres per predeptum eciam, si oporteat, ut in habitu nostri ordinis nichil habeant, quod paupertatem nostram valeat deformare; quinimo fratres omnes compellant portare habitum. 54 'Acta Capitulorum … ab anno 1304 ad annum 1378', 334: de strictura manicarum et de botonis eciam infra manicas non portandis, quantitate capuciorum cappe secundum formam honestam habeant ordinare. This is interesting with regard to the Ottaviano Nelli fresco, where Saint Dominic is clearly shown with buttons on his sleeves. 55 'Acta Capitolorum …ab anno 1380 ad annum 1498', 243: Item. Portantes corrigias argenteas aut tunicas scissas aut non magistri in theologia biretum rotundum puniantur et hiis priventur. 56 C. Gilbert, 'Some Special Images for Carmelites', in: Christianity and the Renaissance. Image and religious imagination in the Quattrocento, ed. T. Verdon and J. Henderson (Syracuse, 1990), 161–207. This ref. 163. See also J. Smet, The Carmelites, vol. 1, (Darien [Illinois], 1988), 10. 57 For a general history of the Franciscans, see J. Moorman, A history of the Franciscan Order from its origins to the year 1517 (Oxford, 1968). For the Dominicans, see R.F. Bennett, The early Dominicans (Cambridge, 1937). 58 For the complicated history of the foundation of the Augustinian hermits, see B. van Luijk, Gli Eremitani Neri nel Dugento (Pisa, 1968). 59 Patrologia Latina, vol. 68, ed. J.B. Migne (Paris, 1866), cols. 385–398. 60 D. de Bruyne, 'Note sur le Costume Bénédictin Primitif', Revue Bénédictine, 33 (1921), 55–61. This ref. 56. 61 P. Schmitz, Histoire de l'Ordre de Saint Benoit, vol. 1 (Maredsous, 1948), 28–29. 62 B. van Luijk, Bullarium Ordinis Eremitarum S. Augustini. Periodus Formationis (Wurzburg, 1964), 125–127. For a full discussion of the problems encountered with the habit of the Hermits of Brettino, see van Luijk, Gli Eremitani neri, 33–35. 63 Bullarium Ordinis Fratrum Praedicatorum, vol. 1 (Rome, 1729), 380: Praedictum fratrum praedicatorum habitum, vel et ita consimilem deferris, quod quando tunicam superiorem deponitis fratres praedicatores credimini. 64 John Pope-Hennessy, Giovanni di Paolo 1403–1483 (London, 1937), 73 and 106 note 34. 65 For a discussion of Augustinian clothing regulations, see J.C. Dickinson, The origins of the Austin Canons and their introduction into England (London, 1950), 185. 66 Bibliotheca Sanctorum (Rome, 1963), Bernardo di Chiaravalle, col. 38. 67 L. Saggi, 'L'ambiente della Bolla Sabbatina—abito religioso e salvezza eterna in scritti medievali', Carmelus, 14 (1967), 63–89. This ref. 74 note 27. 68 It is difficult to trace the origins of this belief. According to C.J. Kirkfleet, The White Canons of Saint Norbert. A history of the Premonstratensian Order in the British Isles and America (Paterson [NJ], 1942), 7, the vision of the habit occurred on 25 January 1120. However Kirkfleet does not give the source of this assertion and it is probable that the vision is a fairly late addition to Praemonstratensian tradition. See Saggi, 'La Bolla Sabbatina', 74 note 27. 69 A. Jameson, Legends of the Monastic Orders as represented in the Fine Arts (London, 1850), 124. This legend is also given in the life of Saint Romuald completed by Jerome of Prague in 1433. See Acta Sanctorum, February, vol. 2 (Antwerp, 1688), 136 para. 61. 70 J. Gage, Colour and culture (London, 1993), 84. 71 L. Marcucci, Gallerie Nazionali di Firenze. I dipinti Toscani del secolo XIV (Rome, 1965), 175–176. 72 G. Kaftal, Iconography of the saints in the painting of North East Italy (Florence, 1978), cols. 903–904. 73 S. Tugwell, 'Dominican profession in the thirteenth century', AFP, 53 (1983), 5–52. This ref. 40. 74 'Acta Capitulorum … ab anno 1220 ad annum 1303', 10. 75 M.C. McCarthy, The Rule for the Nuns of Saint Caesarius of Arles: A translation with a critical introduction (Washington, 1960), 171. 76 Le Règle de Saint Benoit, Vol. 2, trans. A. de Vogüé and ed. J. Neufville (Paris, 1972), 626–633. 77 Tugwell, 'Dominican profession', 10. 78 Very few thirteenth- or fourteenth-century cyles of the life of Saint Peter Martyr exist. However, a panel from the Aragonese School of the first third of the fourteenth century includes the Vestition in the scenes around the central figure of the saint. See Barcelona Restaura. Esposició d'obres d'art dels segles 2 al 20 dels Museus Municipals d'art restaurades pels Serveis de Restauració (Barcelona, 1980), 51–55. 79 The cycle of the life of Saint Peter Martyr was completed by Florentine artist Andrea di Bonaiuto between 1366 and 1368. See E. Borsook, The Mural Painters of Tuscany (Oxford, 1980), 48–54. 80 Tugwell, 'Dominican profession', 34 and 40. 81 Humbert of Romans suggested, in his 'De Officiis Ordinis', that important visitors be brought to the Chapter Room before they were shown the other public spaces of the convent. See J. Gardner, 'Andrea Bonaiuto and the Chapter House frescoes in Santa Maria Novella', Art History, 2 (1979), 107–138. This ref. 111. 82 J. Cannon, 'Dominic alter Christus?' discusses the probable orginal placing of the Arca, pp 43–44, notes 36, 42, 56. 83 The scenes are as follows: 1 (short side) Mission of Saint Dominic, 2 (back) Approval of the Order, 3 (back) Vision of the Blessed Reginald, 4 (side) Miracle of the Bread, 5 (front) Miracle of the Books, 6 (front) Resurrection of Napoleone Orsini. See C. Gnudi, Nicola, Arnolfo, Lapo (Florence, 1948), 58–78. 84 Davies, The earlier Italian schools, 35–36. I am grateful to the National Gallery for allowing me to inspect this panel. 85 G.G. Meersseman, 'La Prédication Dominicaine dans les Congrégations Mariales en Italie au XIIIe siècle', AFP, 18 (1948), 131–161. This ref. 148.