Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

De-Globalisation and Deforestation in Colonial Africa: Closed Markets, the Cattle Complex, and Environmental Change in North-Central Namibia, 1890–1990**

2009; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 35; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/03057070802685585

1465-3893

Emmanuel Kreike,

Rangeland Management and Livestock Ecology

Abstract Models of environmental change derived from the Nature–Culture dichotomy posit a pre-colonial state of Nature subsistence economy that is penetrated by a colonial market economy Culture. In the modernisation paradigm of environmental change, the interaction is seen as positive: (natural) resources are more effectively used. In the declinist and inclinist paradigms, the result is environmental degradation. The history of cattle in the Angolan-Namibian border region between 1890 and 1990, however, complicates the resulting unilinear Nature-to-Culture narratives of environmental change. In fact, the region's cattle were a global market commodity before the colonial conquest; only during and because of colonial rule did cattle become a resource for local subsistence. Colonial officials and experts who by their own admittance were unwilling and unable to ‘modernise’ the cattle sector raised the alarm over overgrazing, deforestation, and desertification. Yet there is little evidence to support their claims of serious environmental degradation. Moreover, the record does not support the assertion that traditional indigenous management and cattle use in north-central Namibia was stable and naturally sustainable because pastoralism in the region was subject to dramatic upheavals caused by war, disease and migration. Notes 1 [Keith Morrow], ‘A Framework for the Long Term Development of Agriculture within Owambo’, August 1989. *I am grateful to Professor David Simon (University of London), and three anonymous readers for JSAS for their comments and suggestions. 2 On management see P. Blaikie and H. Brookfield, Land Degradation and Society (London & New York, Methuen, 1987), pp. 3, 27–48, 100–156 and C.C. Gibson, M.A. McKean and E. Ostrom, People and Forests: Communities, Institutions, and Governance (Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 2000), pp. 1–85, 135–61, 193–226. On the paradigms, see E. Kreike, ‘The Nature-Culture Trap: A Critique of Late 20th Century Global Paradigms of Environmental Change in Africa and Beyond’, Global Environment: A Journal of History and Natural and Social Sciences, 1 (2008), pp. 114–44. 3 M.J. Herskovits, ‘The Cattle Complex in East Africa’ (DPhil Thesis, Columbia University, n.d.). 4 See I. Scoones, ‘Range Management Science & Policy: Politics, Polemics & Pasture in Southern Africa’, and W. Beinart, ‘Soil Erosion, Animals, and Pasture over the Longer Term: Environmental Destruction in Southern Africa’, in M. Leach and R. Mearns (eds), The Lie of the Land: Challenging Received Wisdom on the African Environment (Oxford, IAI and James Currey, and Portsmouth, NH, Heinemann, 1996), pp. 34–53 and 54–72 respectively. See also D.M. Swift, M.B. Conghenour, and M. Atsedu, ‘Arid and Semi-Arid Ecosystems’, in T.R. McClanahan and T.P. Young (eds), East African Ecosystems and their Conservation (New York and Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 243–72. On livestock overpopulation, see H.N. Le Houérou, The Grazing Land Ecosystems of the African Sahel (Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 1989), pp. 90–128 and F.H. Beinroth, ‘Land Resources for Forage in the Tropics’, in A. Sotomayor-Ríos and W.D. Pitman (eds), Tropical Forest Plants: Development and Use (Boca Raton, FL, CRC Press, 2001), pp. 3–15. For India, see D.N. Jha, The Myth of the Holy Cow (London, Verso, 2002). 5 J. Ferguson, The Anti-Politics Machine: ‘Development’, Depolitization, and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho (Minneapolis, University of Minneapolis, 1994) and D.W. Cohen and E.S. Atieno Odhiambo, Siaya: The Historical Anthropology of an African Landscape (London, James Currey, 1989), p. 76. 6 See Le Houérou, The Grazing Land Ecosystems, pp. 124–6, tables 24–28 and Beinart, ‘Soil Erosion’, in Leach and Mearns, The Lie of the Land, p. 66. 7 On carrying capacity, see I. Scoones, ‘Range Management Science and Policy: Politics, Polemics and Pasture in Southern Africa’, and Beinart, ‘Soil Erosion’, in Leach and Mearns, The Lie of the Land, pp. 34–53 and 54–72 respectively; P.D. Little, ‘Rethinking Interdisciplinary Paradigms and the Political Ecology of Pastoralism in East Africa’ and W.A. Munro, ‘Ecological “Crisis” and Resource Management Policy in Zimbabwe's Communal Lands’, in T.J. Bassett and D. Crummey (eds), African Savannas: Global Narratives and Local Knowledge of Environmental Change (Portsmouth, NH, Heinemann, 2003), pp. 163–4 and p. 195 respectively. See also D. Simon, ‘Sustainable Development: Theoretical Construct or Attainable Goal’, Environmental Conservation, 16, 1 (1989), pp. 41–8. 8 Le Houérou, The Grazing Land Ecosystems, pp. 90–128. 9 W.A. Laycock, J.A. Young and D.N. Uechert, ‘Ecological Status of Poisonous Plants on Rangelands’, and M.H. Ralphs and L.A. Sharp, ‘Management to Reduce Livestock Loss from Poisonous Plants’, in L.F. James, M.H. Ralphs and D.B. Nielsen (eds), The Ecology and Economic Impact of Poisonous Plants on Livestock Production (Boulder & London, Westview, 1988), pp. 27–42 and 391–405, respectively. 10 On sorghum, see W.W. Hanna and S. Torres-Cardona, ‘Pennisetums and Sorghums in an Integrated Feeding System in the Tropics’, Sotomayor-Ríos and Pitman (eds), Tropical Forest Plants, pp. 193–200, especially 195–6. In general, see P. Huxley, Tropical Agroforestry (Oxford, Blackwell Science, 1999), pp. 39–50. 11 E. Kreike, Re-creating Eden: Land Use, Environment, and Society in Southern Angola and Northern Namibia (Portsmouth, NH, Heinemann, 2004), pp. 21–5. 12 E. Kreike, ‘Architects of Nature: Environmental Infrastructure and the Nature-Culture Dichotomy’ (Dr Sc thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University, 2006), pp. 107–8. 13 Kreike, Re-creating Eden, chapters 2–3. 14 National Archives of Namibia (hereafter NAN), A233, J. Chapman, 1903–1916, pp. 61–2, and J.P. Peires, The Dead will Arise: Nongqawuse and the Great Xhosa Cattle Killing Movement of 1856–7 (Johannesburg, Ravan Press, 1989), pp. 70–3. 15 Kreike, Re-creating Eden, pp. 37–41. 16 Kreike, Re-creating Eden, pp. 37–41, Chapter 4. 17 Kreike, Re-creating Eden, pp. 37–41, chapters 2–3. 18 J.M. MacKenzie, The Empire of Nature: Hunting, Conservation and British Imperialism (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1988) and A.O. Isenberg, The Destruction of the Bison (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000). 19 NAN, A450 Vol. 10, Family Life and Vol. 7, Annual Report Ovamboland 1938. 20 NAN, UNG, UA 1, Fairlie, Information re. the Property of the late Chief Mandume, Namakunde, 24 April 1917, and NAO 19, Monthly Reports Ovamboland, July–August 1932. 21 See J. Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in Southeast Asia (New Haven, CT, Yale University Press, 1976) and T. Spear, Mountain Farmers: Moral Economies of Land and Agricultural Development in Arusha and Mweru (Dar es Salaam, Mkuki na Nyota, 1997). 22 Kreike, Re-creating Eden, pp. 101–28, 158–76. 23 Centro Nacional de Documentação e Investigação Histórico de Angola (henceforth CNDIH), Avulsos, Caixa 739, ‘Huila’ (1885–1929), 16, Governo do Distrito da Huila, o Governador, Relatório, Lubango, 29 October, 1910; and Codices No. 2339/347, cota 8-2-28, Serviços de Fazenda, Antonio Maria Meirdes e Vasconcelos, Inspecção ao Distrito da Huila, Mapas e Documentes 1913–1914, No. 50. 24 For the Angolan cattle numbers, see ‘Okuwah-ah-kana mosi-oa-tunia (Um Esboço da Regiào Kalahariana e dos Territórios do Sul de Angola)’, Boletim da Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa, 62, 7–8 (July and August 1944), pp. 461–71. On cattle registration, see NAN, NAO 16, O/C NAO to Secretary SWA, Ondangwa, 15 January 1927. For the 1935 Ovamboland number, see Kreike, ‘Architects’, p. 112, table 6.1. 25 Kreike, Re-creating Eden, pp. 64–65, 81–82, 89–98. For the low-priced Angolan cattle, see NAN, NAO 20, Monthly Reports Ovamboland, July–August 1938. 27 NAN, NAO 18, Hahn, Notes on Ovamboland for the Administrator, Windhoek, 15 May 1924. 26 Kreike, ‘Architects of Nature’, p. 112, Table 6.1. 28 Aperçue historique Chronique des Missions: Confieés à la Congrégation du Saint Esprit, 1930–1931 (Paris, 1932), p. 285 and Archives Générales de la Congrégation du Saint-Esprit (ACSSP) 485-A-III, ‘Cubango-Angola: Reprise de la Mission du Cuanyama [1923?]’. 29 NAN, A450, 10, ‘Agriculture’. 30 Kreike, Re-creating Eden, pp. 85, 102, 109, 118–20 and P. Hayes, ‘“Cocky” Hahn and the “Black Venus”: The Making of a Native Commissioner in South West Africa, 1915–1946’, in N.R. Hunt et al. (eds), Gendered Colonialisms in African History (Oxford, Blackwell, 1997), pp. 42–70. 31 NAN, A450, 12, South West Africa Commission, Minutes of Evidence vol. 12, Ukualuthi, 13 August 1935, Evidence Hahn and vol. 10, ‘Agriculture’ and Kreike, Re-creating Eden, pp. 129–76. 32 NAN, NAO 18–20, Monthly Reports Ovamboland, November 1926, November–December 1936, and May 1940; AGR 25, Senior Veterinary Surgeon to Sec. SWA, Windhoek, 13 November 1941; NAO 11, O/C NAO to NCO, 19 September 1939. On export to Angola, see A450, 10, ‘Agriculture’ and NAO 58, Director of Agriculture to Secretary SWA, 24 December 1946. 33 MacDonald Diary, Typed MSS (Private Collection Nancy MacDonald), courtesy Nancy MacDonald, Odibo, 8 March 1993. 34 NAN, NAO 18, 20, Monthly Reports Ovamboland November 1926, May 1939, and Annual Report Ovamboland 1929. 35 NAN, A450, 10 [MSS, draft annual report of 1942]. 36 NAN, NAO 101, Senior Agricultural Officer Natives, Agricultural Survey Ovamboland, Windhoek, 26 October 1947. 37 NAN, NAO 60, Quarterly Report Ovamboland, July–September 1949. 38 NAO 15, Veterinary Officer to Director Agriculture, Investigation: Foot and Mouth Disease, January 18, 1946; NAO 106, Diary NCO 1949–1954, entry 13 February 1950; OVA 49, Chief Agricultural Officer to Director Agriculture, Ondangwa, 25 June 1969. 39 Kreike, Re-creating Eden, pp. 171–6. 40 NAN, A450, Vol. 7, Annual Reports Ovamboland 1941 and 1943; BAC 133, Agricultural Officer to NCO, Report of travel to the north-western part of Ovamboland, 20–22 June 1956, Ondangwa, 4 July 1956 and Agricultural Report Ovamboland, 1956/1957. 41 NAN, NAO 60, Quarterly Report Ovamboland October–December 1952 and NAO 65, Annual Health Report Ovamboland 1953. 42 Kreike, ‘Architects of Nature’, pp. 111–13. 43 NAN, AHE (BAC) 1/352, Annual Reports Agriculture Oukwanyama 1964 and 1968; OVA 49, Meeting of the Sub-Committee on Village Planning, 2 September 1970; OVA 9, Statistics 1967, appendix to Director-in-Chief Economic Affairs to Director Agriculture, Ondangwa, 25 March 1969 and Director Agriculture to Director-General Co-operation Pretoria, [Ondangwa], 5 May 1981; OVA 61, Monthly Reports Agricultural Officer: Andreus Ndeitwa, August 1976; OVA 6, Annual Report Agriculture Owambo, 1979/1980. On the ‘backwardness’ of Ovambo cattle management, see AHE (BAC) 1/346, Chief Bantu Commissioner SWA to Principal Agricultural College Arabie, Transvaal, Windhoek, 13 July 1965. 44 Kreike, ‘Architects of Nature’, p. 114. 45 NAN, BAC 133, Agricultural Report Ovamboland, 1955/1956. 46 NAN, NAO 98, ANC to NCO, Oshikango, 11 June 1947 and Statement Mululu Kalongela, Ondangwa, 12 May 1948; NAO 64, Minutes of Ukwanyama Tribal Meeting [12 July 1954]; AGR 897, Statement Elizabeth Ikau, 27 November 1961; BAC 133, Agricultural Report Ovamboland, 1955/1956. For other examples of the exchangeability of cattle and grains, see NAO 98, ANC to NCO, Oshikango, 11 June 1947 and Statement Mululu Kalongela, Ondangwa, 12 May 1948; A450, 23 D4 (1924) and Vol. 24 D19. 47 NAN, BAC 133, Agricultural Reports Ovamboland, 1955/1956 and 1956/1957; NAO 27, NCO to Sec. SWA, Ondangwa, 15 November 1941; NAO 103, Censii of Agriculture Ovamboland, 1945/1946 and 1949/1950; NAO 70, Statement Nehala Nangoro, Oshikango, 23 December 1948; NAO 64, Minutes of Ukwanyama Tribal Meeting [12 July 1954]; BAC 122, Famine Relief Schemes (I), Chief Bantu Commissioner to Minister for Bantu Administration, Windhoek, 26 June 1959; BAC 44, Minutes meetings at Ombalantu, 15 June 1960 and at Onkolonkathi tribal area, 16 June 1960; OVA 50, Minutes Ukuanyama Tribal Government Meeting, 7 December 1971. 48 NAN, BAC 133, Agricultural Reports Ovamboland, 1955/1956 and 1956/1957; NAO 103, Census of Agriculture Ovamboland, 1945/1946, and NCO to Sec. SWA, Windhoek, 8 March 1946; BOS f. ‘Oshikango’, Agricultural Officer Ovamboland to Native Commissioners Ondangwa and Oshikango, [Ondangwa], 17 August 1956; OVA 6, Annual Report Agriculture Owambo, 1979/1980; A450 Vol. 7, Annual Report Ovamboland 1941. 49 On eating dead cattle, see NAN, NAO 60, Quarterly Reports Ovamboland, January–March 1948, January–June 1949, January–March 1951, January–March 1954; NAO 59, Kaibi Mundjele to NCO, Ombalantu, 2 May 1950; NAO 37, Annual Health Report Ovamboland 1937; NAO 20, Monthly Reports Ovamboland, March–April 1940; NAO 62, Agricultural Report Ovamboland 1953. 50 In western Kenya similar local cattle markets operated below the colonial radar screen, see D.W. Cohen and E.S. Atieno Odhiambo, Siaya: A Historical Anthropology of an African Landscape (London, James Currey, 1989), pp. 76–81. 51 NAN, OVA 26, Sec. Agriculture to Sec. Bantu Administration Pretoria, Ondangwa, 10 March 1977. 52 NAN, BAC 133, Agricultural Report Ovamboland 1955/1956; OVA 57, Dr. H.A. Lueckhoff, Report on a visit to South West Africa, November 3–15 1969, Appendix Regional Forester to Director-in-Chief Bantu Administration Pretoria, Grootfontein, 3 April 1970; OVA 56, Sec. Bantu Administration to Director Agriculture Ondangwa, Pretoria, 11 June 1971; OVA 46, Director Agriculture to Sec. Bantu Affairs Pretoria, Ondangwa, 17 November 1971; OVA 45, Sec. Agriculture to Foreign Affairs Pretoria, Ondangwa, 16 January 1974. 53 See, for example, NAN, OVA 61, Monthly Reports 1971, Agricultural Officer Moses Nadjebo for 1971. 54 See Proposed Agricultural Strategy for SWA/Namibia, August 1986. 55 S. Sanford, Management of Pastoral Development in the Third World (Chichester, [West Sussex], Wiley, 1983), pp. 104–5; P.D. Little, ‘Rethinking Interdisciplinary Paradigms and the Political Ecology of Pastoralism in East Africa’, and W.A. Munro, ‘Ecological “Crisis” and Resource Management Policy in Zimbabwe's Communal Lands’, in Bassett and Crummey, African Savannas, pp. 161–77 and 178–204, respectively. 56 NAN, OVA 45, Sec. Agriculture to Foreign Affairs Pretoria, Ondangwa, 16 January 1974; OVA 26, H. Hamburger, C.W.B. Amstrong, and J. Swanepoel, ‘Adaptability and Reproductive Efficiency: The Value of Indigenous Sanga Cattle in the National States of South Africa and Namibia’, RSA, Department of Co-operation [circa 1979]; OVA 55, le Roux, A Progress Report on Indigenous Cattle in SWA, 20 June [circa 1980]; BOS f. ‘Oshikango’, Agricultural Officer Ovamboland to Native Commissioners Ondangwa and Oshikango, [Ondangwa], 17 August 1956. A 1972 report specified that the CU standard was based on a head of cattle of 800 lbs., see AGR 541, Director SWA to Sec. Agriculture, Technical Service Pretoria, n.p., 16 October 1972. 57 NAN, AGR 125, Director Agriculture to Director Veterinary Services Pretoria, [Ondangwa], 27 August 1959; BOS, ‘District Record Book Oshikango,’ 1965; AGR 897, Director of Agriculture to Cattle Inspector Oshikango, [Ondangwa], 8 November 1961 and to Secretary SWA, [Ondangwa], 13 January 1961; BAC 40, Director Agriculture to Chief Bantu Affairs Commissioner, Windhoek, 15 March 1963; AGR 95, Veterinary Inspector to Agriculture Windhoek, Omafo, 15 May 1963; AHE (BAC) 332, State Veterinarian to Director Agriculture, Ondangwa, 23 September 1966; AGR 298, Memo Director Veterinary Services to Secretary LTD, 19 May 1968 and Director Agriculture to Administrator, 1 November 1968; OVA 56, Chief Bantu Commissioner SWA to Chief Director Ovamboland, [Windhoek], 18 December 1968, Appendices I–II. 58 NAN, BAC 133, Agricultural Report Ovamboland 1955/1956; BAC 132, Trust Farming Projects, Agriculture Officer to Bantu Commissioner, Grootfontein, 1 February 1962, Monthly Report for January 1962; Kreike, Re-creating Eden, Chapter 8. 59 NAN, AHE 1/351, Report of Activities Agriculture Ovamboland, July–September 1966 and monthly report August 1966. 60 NAN, AGR 47, Director Agriculture to Director Animal Research Institute, Pirbright, England, n.p., 23 February 1967. 61 NAN, AGR 538, Director Agriculture to Bishop of Damaraland, Windhoek, 26 May 1961; OVA 40, Ovambo Government, ‘Verhoging van die Beesvleis produksie in Ovambo deur seleksie en teling’, 5 August 1971; NAN, OVA 26, Hamburger, Armstrong, and Swanepoel, Adaptability and Reproductive Efficiency: The Value of Indigenous Sanga Cattle in the National States of South Africa and Namibia,' Republic of South Africa: Department of Co-operation and Development [circa 1979/1980]. 62 NAN, AHE (BAC) 1/352, Annual Report Agriculture Oukwanyama for 1964 and Annual Report for Agriculture Ovamboland for 1968; AHE (BAC) 1/346, Chief Bantu Commissioner SWA to Principal Agricultural College Arabie, Marble Hall, Transvaal, Windhoek, 13 July 1965 and Travel Report, Chief Agricultural Officer, April 25–27 1966; AHE (BAC) 332, State Veterinarian to Director Agriculture, Ondangwa, 23 September 1966; OVA 49, Meeting of the Sub-Committee on Village Planning and Development and Agricultural Planning of the Planning and Co-ordinating Committee on 2 September 1970; OVA 40, Gresse to Director Agriculture, Ondangwa, 30 March 197 and travel report 8–12 March 1971; OVA 9, Director Agriculture to Director-General Co-operation and Development Pretoria, [Ondangwa], 5 May 1981. 63 Proposed Agricultural Strategy for SWA/Namibia, August 1986. 64 [Keith Morrow], A Framework for the Long Term Development of Agriculture within Owambo (August 1989). 65 Le Houérou, The Grazing Land Ecosystems, pp. 90–128; H. Gillet, ‘Observations on the Causes of Devastation of Ligenous Plants in the Sahel and their Resistance to Destruction’: H.N. Le Houérou (ed.), Browse in Africa: The Current State of Knowledge (Addis Ababa, ICLA, 1980), pp. 127–9; J. Westoby, Introduction to World Forestry (Oxford and New York, Basil Blackwell, 1989), pp. 172–3. 66 NAN, OVA 57, Le Roux to Sec. Agriculture, Inventory: Indigenous Forests, Ondangwa, 5 November 1976. 67 NAN, OVA 57, Le Roux to Sec. Agriculture, Supply Inventory: Indigenous Forests Ovamboland, Ondangwa, 5 November 1976. 68 G.D. Piearce, ‘Natural Regeneration of Indigenous Trees: The Key to Successful Management,’ in G.D. Piearce and D.J. Gumbo (eds), The Ecology and Management of Indigenous Forests in Southern Africa. Proceedings of an International Symposium, Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe, 27–29 July 1992 (Harare, The Forestry Commission in collaboration with SAREC, 1993), p. 115. For Ovamboland, see NAN, OVA 57, Lueckhoff, Report on a visit to South West Africa, November 3–15, 1969, Appendix Regional Forester to Director-in-Chief Department of Bantu Administration Pretoria, Grootfontein, 3 April 1970. 69 Kreike, Re-creating Eden, pp. 155–76; NAN, NAO 59, Dr. Zschokke, Survey of Cattle Diseases in Ovamboland: October 1948, 5 November 1948 and OVA 6, Annual Report Veterinary Service Owambo 1975/1976. 70 See Le Houérou, Browse in Africa, p. 3 and the contributions by B.H. Walker, ‘A Review of Browse and its Role in Livestock Production in Southern Africa’, p. 12; C.M. McKell, ‘Multiple Use of Fodder Trees and Shrubs – A World Wide Perspective’, pp. 141–9; G.E. Wickens, ‘The Uses of the Baobab (Andansonia digitata L.) in Africa’, pp. 151–4; H.N. Le Houérou, ‘The Role of Browse in the Management of Natural Grazing Lands’, pp. 329–38; M.B. Adjei and J.P. Muir, ‘Current Developments from Tropical Forage Research in Africa’, in Sotomayor-Ríos and Pitman, Tropical Forest Plants, pp. 331–55, especially 351 and Frost, ‘The Ecology of Miombo Woodlands,’, in B. Campbell (ed), The Miombo in Transition: Woodlands and Welfare in Africa (Bogor, Indonesia, CIFOR, 1996), pp. 36–8. 71 NAN, NAO 18, Monthly Reports Ovamboland, February–March 1928; NAO 101, Agricultural Survey of Ovamboland, Windhoek, 26 October 1947; NAO 62, Agricultural Report Ovamboland, Omafu, 30 November 1953. 72 NAN, AHE (BAC) 1/352, Annual Report Agriculture Ovamboland, 1968; OVA 40 f. 6/5/2, Deputy Head Veterinary Services to Director-in-Chief Ovamboland, Windhoek, 29 August 1969 and Appendix, Chemical Composition of Grazing Samples in Ovamboland, 23 April 1969 and Ovambo Government, Report: ‘Verhoging van die Beesvleis produksie in Ovambo’, 5 August 1971; OVA 56, Sec. Bantu Administration to Director Agriculture Ondangwa, Pretoria, 11 June 1971; OVA 46, Agriculture to Sec. Bantu Administration Pretoria, Ondangwa, 17 November 1971; OVA 57, Forest Inventory Indigenous Forests Ovamboland, Le Roux to Sec. Agriculture, Ondangwa, 5 November 1976; OVA 6, Annual Report Veterinary Services Ovamboland, 1978/1979. 73 NAN, A450 Vol. 7, Annual Report Ovamboland 1941. 75 NAN, NAO 9, O/C NAO to NCO, Ondangwa, 26 July 1939. 74 NAN, NAO 17, NCO to Clarke, Ondangwa, 17 July 1933; NAO 23, NCO to O/C Oshikango, Ondangwa, 15 July 1939 and O/C Oshikango to Wessels, [Oshikango] 17 July 1939; NAO 18–20, Monthly Reports Ovamboland, November–December 1930, September–October 1936, September 1938; NAO 60–61, Quarterly Reports Ovamboland April–September 1948, April–December 1949, October–December 1953; NAO 41, Famine Relief Report Ovamboland, October 1930. 76 NAN, BAC 123, Chief Bantu Commissioner SWA to Sec. Bantu Administration, Windhoek, 8 February 1960. 77 Personal observations, 1991–93. 78 Le Houérou, The Grazing Land Ecosystems, pp. 49–50, 82. 79 Le Houérou, ‘The Role of Browse in the Management of Natural Grazing Lands,’ in Le Houérou, Browse in Africa, pp. 329–38. 80 B.H. Walker, ‘A Review of Browse and its Role in Livestock Production in Southern Africa’, in Le Houérou, Browse in Africa, pp. 16, Table 9. 81 NAN, BAC 131, Agricultural Officer Ovamboland to Bantu Commissioners Ondangwa and Oshikango, 28 January 1957; BAC 132, Agriculture Officer to Bantu Commissioner, Grootfontein, 30 July 1961: Report on Work on Okatana Irrigation Scheme, 30 July–11 September 1961; Chief Bantu Commissioner to Bantu Commissioner Grootfontein, Windhoek, 3 August 1961; Agriculture Officer Grootfontein to Bantu Commissioner, Grootfontein, 31 July 1962 and Chief Bantu Commissioner to Bantu Commissioner Ondangwa, [Windhoek], 4 September 1962; OVA 57, Dr H.A. Lueckhoff, Report on a Visit to South West Africa, 3–15 November 1969, Appendix Regional Forester to Director-in-Chief Bantu Administration Pretoria, Grootfontein, 3 April 1970. 82 Kreike, ‘Architects of Nature’, pp. 132–3. 83 NAN, OVA 26, H. Hamburger, C.W.B. Amstrong, and J. Swanepoel, Adaptability and Reproductive Efficiency: The Value of Indigenous Sanga Cattle in the National States of South Africa and Namibia, RSA Department of Co-operation and Development [1979?]. 84 NAN, OVA 44, Opperman and Prinsloo, Botanical Survey and Physical Planning Orongo Trial Area, Appendix to Opperman to Director Agriculture, Windhoek, 28 July 1969. 85 NAN, OVA 56, F.J. van der Merwe (Veterinary Studies, University of Stellenbosch), Progress Report 1975/1976: Research into the Observed Low Meat Production Potential of the Indigenous Cattletype in Owamboland. 86 NAN, OVA 26, Owambo Livestock Practices, Appendix to Sec. Agriculture to Sec. Bantu Administration, Pretoria, Ondangwa, 10 March 1977. 87 NAN, OVA 43, Joubert, Final Report: Research on the Productive Potential and Best Use of Oshana Pasture Veld in Owambo, Appendix to Sec. Plural Relations to Sec. Agriculture Ovambo Government, Pretoria, 5 June 1979. 88 NAN, OVA 49, Director Agriculture Owambo to Sec. Bantu Administration, Ondangwa, 25 February 1972; State Forester to Director Agriculture, Ondangwa, 21 February 1972; Sec. Bantu Administration to Director Agriculture, Pretoria, 9 February 1972. 89 D.M. Swift, M.B. Conghenour and M. Atsedu, ‘Arid and Semi-Arid Ecosystems’, in T.R. McClanahan and T.P. Young (eds), East African Ecosystems and their Conservation (New York and Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 261–69 and W.D. Pitman, ‘Contrasts in Current Developments with Tropical Forest Research in Asia and the Americas’, in Sotomayor-Ríos and Pitman, Tropical Forest Plants, pp. 357–70; J. Piot, ‘Management and Utilization Methods for Ligneous Forages: Natural Stands and Artificial Plantations’, in Le Houérou, Browse in Africa, pp. 339–49. 90 C.M. McKell, ‘Multiple Use of Fodder Trees and Shrubs – A World Wide Perspective’, in Le Houérou, Browse in Africa, pp. 141–9.