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‘Conduct’ and ‘Counter-conduct’ on the Southern Border of Turkey: Multicultural Antakya

2009; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 45; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/00263200903009650

1743-7881

Fulya Doğruel, Johan Leman,

China's Global Influence and Migration

Abstract Due to its particular border situation and historical past, Antakya (in south-central Turkey) has, in contrast to most cities in Turkey, been successful in protecting important components of its diachronically composed multiculturalism. In light of such qualities Antakya is able to permit a diachronic analysis of different subsequent 'governmentalities' (Foucault) and flexible network formations that reflect the various processes in government styles in twentieth century Turkey. Through participant observation and in-depth interviews the authors try to reconstruct the diachronic multiculturalism from a perspective of macro- and micro-powers, 'conduct' and 'counter-conduct'. Notes 1. See R. Tuvi, 'Çan Sesi, Ezan Sesi, İlahiler ve Rock Konseri' [The sound of Bells, the Calls for prayers, Hymns and Rock Concerts], Hürriyet, 23 Oct. 2003; H. Ergülen, 'Bahtiyar kambur' [The Lucky Hunchback], Radikal, 29 March 2006; 'Antakya; Fantazya', Atlas, 1994, 2001; K. Şenyücel, 'Ezan, Çan, Hazan: Antakya' [Call for prayers, Bells and 'Hazan': Antakya], TRT 1 (2004); See also http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=182746 (accessed 18 Sept. 2008). http://www.tumgazeteler.com/?a=1568720 (accessed 18 Sept. 2008). 2. http://www.die.gov.tr/nufus_sayimi/2000tablo4.xls (accessed 18 Sept. 2008). 3. See M. Foucault, Naissance de la biopolitique (Seuil: Gallimard, 2004), p.120. 4. Since the Census in 1965 in Turkey, there have been no national statistics on the composition of population by ethnicity in Turkey and also Antakya, as it is against the legal provisions which do not allow making census on ethnicity basis. These are approximate ratios based on the distribution of the population in the neighbourhoods within Antakya. 5. For history of Antakya (Hatay) see S. Ada, Türk-Fransız İlişkilerinde Hatay Sorunu [The matter of Hatay in Turkish-French Relations] (Istanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Universitesi Yayınları, 2005); Y. Güçlü, The Question of the Sanjak Of Alexandretta (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2001); F. Türkmen, Mufassal Hatay Tarihi [The detailed History of Hatay], Vol.1 (İstanbul: Cumhuriyet Matbaası, 1937); S. Yerasimos, Milliyetler ve Sınırlar: Balkanlar, Kafkasya ve Orta-Doğu [Nationalities and Borders: the Balkans, Caucasia and the Middle East] (İstanbul: İletişim, 1994). 6. K. Karpat, Ortadogu'da Osmanli Mirasi ve Ulusculuk [The Ottoman Ethnic and Confessional Legacy in the Middle East], trans. R. Boztemur (Ankara: Imge Kitabevi yayinlari, 2001), pp.166–85. 7. Ibid., p.165. 8. See 'Türk Öğrencilere Suriye Kancası' [The Syrian Hook on Turkish Students], Milliyet, 2 March 1998; T. Şardan, 'Hatay'a Büyük Gözaltı' [A major Surveillance on Hatay], Milliyet, 18 Sept. 2000; N. Akman, 'Hataylı'nın Kefiliyim' [I am a Guarantor for the people of Hatay], Sabah, 1 Nov. 1998. 9. http://www.milliyet.com.tr/2004/06/16/ege/yazkasali.html (accessed 18 Sept. 2008). 10. Personal communication with N. Şeker, Professor of History at METU, Ankara, 10 June 2004. 11. M. Senellart, 'Course Context', in M. Foucault, Security, Territory, Population: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1977–78, trans. G. Burchell (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), p.388. 12. Ibid., p.389. 13. Ibid., p.389. 14. In the Ottoman context, the term millet refers to the institutional framework governing the societal structure and the communities on the basis of religious confession rather than ethnic origin. For the millet structure of Ottoman society see K. Karpat, 'The Ottoman Ethnic and Confessional Legacy in the Middle East', pp. 35–54, and E. Kedourie, 'Ethnicity, Majority and Minority in the Middle East', pp.25–35, in M.J. Esman, and I. Rabinovich (eds.), Ethnicity, Pluralism and State in the Middle East (London: Cornell University Press, 1988); B. Oran, Türkiye'de Azınlıklar [Minorities in Turkey] (Istanbul: Iletisim Yayınları, 2004), pp.48, 49, 54. 15. J. Le Goff, La civilization de l'Occident medieval (Paris: Arthaud, 1984). 16. Before it became a part of Turkey, the Sanjak of Alexadretta's (İskenderun and Antakya) internal affairs were independent but its external affairs still had a connection to Syria which was still a French colony. In the year 1937 an agreement between France and Turkey was presented to the people of the Sanjak setting out their right to determine their own fate. Thereupon, French and Turks both sought to pull Alawites to their side. For related reading, see those under 'The period of stringent Kemalism'. See also T. Sökmen, Hatay'ın Kurtuluşu için Harcanan Çabalar [The Efforts Spent for the Independence of Hatay] (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu basımevi, 1978). 17. M. Foucault 'Security, Territory and Population', in P. Rabinow (ed.), Michel Foucault. Ethics: Subjectivity and Truth (New York: New Press, 1997), p.82. 18. T. Lemke, 'Foucault, Governmentality, and Critique', Rethinking Marxism, Vol.14, No.3 (Fall 2002), p.50. 19. J. Leman, The Dynamics of Emerging Ethnicities: Immigrant and Indigenous Ethnogenesis in Confrontation (Frankfurt a. Main: P. Lang, 1998). 20. http://www.ahilik.gazi.edu.tr/ahadyarsivs1.htm (accessed 22 Sept. 2008). 21. On the population exchange between Greece and Turkey see Ç. Okutan, Tek Parti Döneminde Azınlık Politikaları [Minority politics during the Term of the Single Party] (Istanbul: Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2004); R. Hirschon, Heirs of the Greek Catastrophe: The Social Life of Asia Minor Refugees in Piraeus (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 1998). 22. W.A. Haviland, Cultural Anthropology (Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers; 1999), p.244. 23. N. Stinnet, J. Walters and E. Kaye, Relationships in Marriage and the Family (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1977), p.29. 24. R.A. Schermerhorn, Comparative Ethnic Relations (New York: Random House, 1970), p.268. 25. M. Salmanoglu, Sociologist from Hatay, personal communication, Antakya, 21 Aug. 2004. 26. Senellart, Course Context, p.389. 27. R.D. Grillo, Pluralism and the Politics of Difference: State, Culture, and Ethnicity in Comparative Perspective (Oxford: Clarendon, 1998), p.326. 28. See H. Isaacs, Idols of the Tribe (New York: Harper & Row, 1975); B. Lewis, The Multiple Identities of the Middle East (New York: Schocken Books, 1988); G. Baumann, The Multicultural Riddle: Rethinking Ethnic and Racial Identities (New York: Routledge, 1999). 29. B. Aswad, Land, Marriage and Lineage Organization among Sedentarized Pastoralists in the Hatay, Southern Turkey: A Diachronic Analysis, 1937- (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigen Press, 1972). 30. C.A. Ferguson, 'Diglossia', Word, Vol.15 (1959), pp.325–40. 31. Grillo, Pluralism and the Politics of Difference, p. 327. 32. M. Nash, 'The Cauldron of Ethnicity in the Modern World', in J. Hutchinson and A.D. Smith (eds.), Ethnicity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp.24–8. 33. Ibid., pp.24–8. 34. S. Cornell and D. Hartman, Ethnicity and Race (London: Sage Publications, 1994), p.7. 35. See Yenigün gazetesi, 19 May 1938. 36. B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (New York: Verso, 1991). 37. Ç. Okutan, Tek Parti Döneminde Azınlık Politikaları (Istanbul: Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2004), S. Çağaştay, 'Race, Assimilation and Kemalism: Turkish Nationalism and the Minorities in the 1930s', Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.40, No.3 (May 2004), pp.86–101. 38. S. Çağaştay, 'Otuzlarda Türk Milliyetçiliğinde Irk, Dil, Etnisite' [Race, Language and Ethnicity within Turkish Nationalism in the 1930s], Modern Türkiye'de Siyasi Düşünce, Cilt 4/Milliyetçilik (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2002), pp.245–260. 39. N. Canefe, 'Tribalism and Nationalism in Turkey', in K. Christie (ed.), Ethnic Conflict, Tribal Politics (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 1998), p.57. 40. B. Oran, Kuresellesme ve Azınlıklar [Globalization and minorities] (Ankara: Imaj, 2001). 41. See B. Balçık, 'Milliyetçilik ve Dil Politikaları' [Nationalism and Language Politics], in Modern Türkiye'de Siyasi Düşünce, Cilt 4/Milliyetçilik (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2002), pp.777–80; M. Katoğlu, 'Cumhuriyet Türkiyesinde Eğitim, Kültür, Sanat' [Education, Culture and Art in Republican Turkey], in S. Akşin (ed.), Türkiye Tarihi, 4/Çağdaş Türkiye, 1908–1980 (İstanbul: Cem Yayınları, 1989), pp.393–470. 42. Okutan, Tek Parti Döneminde Azınlık Politikaları, p.180. 43. Anderson, Imagined Communities. 44. Katoğlu, 'Cumhuriyet Türkiyesinde Eğitim, Kültür, Sanat', p.410. 45. Çağaştay, 'Otuzlarda Türk Milliyetçiliğinde Irk, Dil, Etnisite', p.247; Okutan, Tek Parti Döneminde Azınlık Politikaları, p.181. 46. Cornell and Hartman, Ethnicity and Race, p.7. 47. Okutan, Tek Parti Döneminde Azınlık Politikaları, pp.181–2; See also R. Akar, '20. Yüzyılın Malazgirtleri' ['Malazgirts' of the 20th Century], Birikim: Etnik Kimlik ve Azınlıklar, Mart-Nisan (1995), pp.65–75. 48. Yenigün gazetesi, 30 June, 22 July, 18 Sept. 1938. 49. For further reading on Alevis in Kemalist Regime of Turkey see T. Erman and E. Köker, 'Alevi Politics in Contemporary Turkey', Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.36, No.4 (Oct. 2000), pp.99–118; K. Kehl-Bodrogi, 'Introduction', in K. Kehl-Bodrogi, B. Kellner-Heinkele and A. Otter-Beaujean (eds.), Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East: Collected Papers (Leiden: Brill, 1997), pp.xi–xvii; F. Bozkurt, Çağdaşlaşma Sürecinde Alevism (İstanbul: Doğan Kitapçılık, 2000); A. Yalçınkaya, Alevilikte Toplumsal Kurumlar ve İktidar [Societal Institutions and Power in Alevism] (Ankara: Mülkiyeliler Birliği, 1996); M. Aringberg-Laanatza, 'Alevis in Turkey-Alevis in Syria: Similarities and Differences', in T. Olsson, E. Özdalga and C. Raudvere (eds.), Alevi Identity (Stockholm: Swedish Research Institute, 1998). 50. Oran, Kuresellesme ve Azınlıklar, p.142; Okutan, Tek Parti Döneminde Azınlık Politikaları, p.73. 51. Okutan Tek Parti Döneminde Azınlık Politikaları, p.73. 52. See A. Aktar, Varlık Vergisi ve Turklestirme Politikaları [Property Tax and Turkification Politics] (Istanbul: Iletisim Yayınları, 2000); A. Yıldız, Ne Mutlu Türküm Diyebilene: Türk Ulusal Kimliğinin Etno-Seküler Sınırları (1919–1923) [How Happy is he, who can say he is a Turk. The Ethno-Secular Limits on the Turkish National Identity] (Istanbul: Iletisim yayınları, 2001); and R. Akar, Varlık Vergisi: Tek Parti Rejiminde Azınlık Karşıtı Politika Örneği [Property tax: A Political example of Minority Phobia during The Single Party regime] (Istanbul: Belge Yayınları, 1992). 53. For further information see Oran, Türkiye'de Azınlıklar, pp.63, 67. 54. M. Bruinessen, 'The Debate on the Ethnic Identity of the Kurdish Alevis', http://www.let.uu.nl/∼Martin.vanBruinessen/personal/publications/Alevi_revival.htm#_ftn1 (accessed 22 Sept. 2008). 55. See Oran, Kuresellesme ve Azınlıklar, p.140; Akar, '20. Yüzyılın Malazgirtleri', p.68; Okutan, Tek Parti Döneminde Azınlık Politikaları, p.78. 56. K. Kirişçi, 'Disaggregating Turkish Citizenship and Immigration Practices', Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.36, No.3 (July 2000), pp.1–23. 57. Canefe, 'Tribalism and Nationalism in Turkey'; E. Işın and P. Wood, Citizenship and Identity (London: Sage, 1999); Kirişçi, 'Disaggregating Turkish Citizenship and Immigration Practices'; Oran, Türkiye'de Azınlıklar. 58. See C. Karakas, Turkey: Islam and Laicism between the Interests of State, Politics, and Society, PRIF Reports No.78 (Frankfurt Peace Research Institute, 2007); F. Ahmad, The Making of Modern Turkey (New York: Routledge, 1993); Canefe, 'Tribalism and Nationalism in Turkey'; B. Pehlivan, Aleviler ve Diyanet [Alevis and State Department of Religious Affairs] (İstanbul: Pencere Yayınları, 1993); Yalçınkaya, Alevilikte Toplumsal Kurumlar ve İktidar; E. Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History (London: I.B. Tauris and Co. Ltd, 2004). 59. See Bruinessen, 'The Debate on the Ethnic Identity of the Kurdish Alevis'; Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History; R. Çakır, 'Political Alevism versus Political Sunnism: Convergences and Divergences', in T. Olsson, E. Özdalga and C. Raudvere (eds.), Alevi Identity (Stockholm: Swedish Research Institute, 1998), pp.63–7; N. Şahhüseyinoğlu, Alevi Örgütlerinin Tarihsel Süreci [The Historical span of Alevi organizations] (Ankara: Ayyıldız Yayınları, 2001); R. Zelyut, Aleviler Ne Yapmalı [What Should Alevis Do] (İstanbul: Yön Yayınları, 1993). 60. Bruinessen, 'The Debate on the Ethnic Identity of the Kurdish Alevis'. 61. See Vergin 1991, quoted in M. Küçük, 'Cemaat, Yurttaş ve Sivil Toplum Meseleleri Işığında Aleviler ve Cem Vakfı' [Alevis and Cem Organizations in the Light of Matters concerning the Community, the citizen and the Civil Society], in A. Toumarkine et al. (eds.), Türkiye'de Sivil Toplum ve Milliyetçilik [civil society and nationalism in Turkey] (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2001), p.195. 62. Foucault, Naissance de la biopolitique, p.30. 63. F. Doğruel, Insaniyetleri Benzer…: Hatay'da Coketnili Ortak Yaşam Kültürü [Similar Humanities …: The Culture of Multiethnic Common Existence in Hatay] (Istanbul: Iletisim Yayınları, 2005). 64. M.E. Galip-Et Tavil, Nusayriler [Nusayris] (İstanbul: Çivi Yazıları, 2000); M. Öz, 'Nusayriyye', in I. Melikoff (ed.), Tarihi ve Kültürel Boyutları ile Türkiye'de Aleviler, Bektaşiler, Nusayri Aleviler [With Their Historical and Cultural Dimensions, the Alevis, Bektashis and Nusayri Alawites in Turkey] (İstanbul: Inkılap Kitabevi, 1998); Türkmen, Mufassal Hatay Tarihi. 65. M. Aringberg-Laanatza, 'Alevis in Turkey – Alevis in Syria: Similarities and Differences', in Olsson et al. (eds.), Alevi Identity, pp.151–65. 66. See Ahmad, The Making of Modern Turkey; Aringberg-Laanatze, 'Alevis in Turkey – Alevis in Syria'; and Bruinessen, 'The Debate on the Ethnic Identity of the Kurdish Alevis'. 67. M. Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writing 1972–1977, ed. C. Gordon; trans. C. Gordon et al. (Brighton: The Harvester Press, 1980), p.98. 68. See A. Demir, Çağlar İçinde Antakya [Antakya through the Ages] (Istanbul: Akbank Yayını, 1996); E. Özveren, 'Zaman Içinde Avrupa, Akdeniz Dünyası ve Antakya Üzerine Düşünceler' [Europe thorugh Time, the Mediterranean World and Opinions on Antakya], in E. Özveren et al. (eds.), Akdeniz Dünyası [The Mediterranean World] (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2006), pp.11–13. 69. M. Foucault, 'Society must be Defended', in M. Bertani and A. Fontana (eds.), Lectures at the Collège de France, 1975–76, trans. D. Macey (London: Penguin Books, 2003), p.267.