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The Falun Gong, Buddhism and “Buddhist qigong”

2005; Routledge; Volume: 29; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/10357820500139513

1467-8403

Benjamin Penny,

China's Socioeconomic Reforms and Governance

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1. The Tianjin demonstration that gave rise to the gathering at Zhongnanhai was, according to the People's Daily, only the last of some 78 protests with more than 300 participants against media organisations that Falun Gong had staged since 1996. See ‘Cult Crimes Must Be Punished’, 1999 1999. Cult crimes must be punished. People's Daily Online English edition, 6 November available online at english.peopledaily.com.cn/199911/06/archive.html [Google Scholar]. 2. Nova Religio, the Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions devoted a special issue to Falun Gong in 2003. For recent work in English on Falun Gong (of varying quality) see Amnesty International (2000) Amnesty International. 2000. The crackdown on Falun Gong and other heretical organizations available online at: web.amnesty.org/library/Index/engASA170112000 [Google Scholar], Chang (2004) Chang and Maria, Hsia. 2004. Falun Gong: The end of days, New Haven: Yale Uiversity Press. [Google Scholar], Chen (2003) Chen and Nancy, N. 2003. Breathing spaces: Qigong, psychiatry, and healing in China, New York: Columbia University Press. [Google Scholar], Munro (2002) Munro and Robin. 2002. Dangerous minds: Political psychiatry in China today and its origins in the Mao era, New York: Human Rights Watch and the Geneva Initiative on Psychiatry. [Google Scholar], Palmer (2003) Palmer and David, A. 2003. Modernity and millenarianism in China: Qigong and the birth of Falun Gong. Asian Anthropology, 2: 79–109. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar], Penny (2002a Penny and Benjamin. 2002a. Falun Gong, prophecy and apocalypse. East Asian History, 23 June: 149–68. [Google Scholar], 2002b Penny and Benjamin. 2002b. The body of Master Li. The 2002 Charles Strong Memorial Trust Annual Lecture for the Australian Association of Religious Studies. available online at: users.senet.com.au/∼nhabel/Lectures/penny.pdf [Google Scholar], 2003 Penny and Benjamin. 2003. The life and times of Li Hongzhi: Falun Gong and religious biography. China Quarterly, 175 September: 643–61. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]), Perry (2001) Perry and Elizabeth, J. 2001. Challenging the mandate of heaven: Popular protest in modern China. Critical Asian Studies, 33(2): 163–80. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], Spiegel (2002) Spiegel and Mickey. 2002. Dangerous meditation: China's campaign against Falun Gong, New York: Human Rights Watch. [Google Scholar], Thornton (2002 Thornton and Patricia, M. 2002. Framing dissent in contemporary China: Irony, ambiguity and metonymy. China Quarterly, 171 September: 661–81. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 2004 Thornton and Patricia, M. 2004. “The new cybersects: Resistance and repression in the reform era”. In Chinese society, , 2nd edition, Edited by: Perry, E. J. and Selden, M. London: Routledge. [Google Scholar]), Tong (2002) Tong and James. 2002. An organizational analysis of the Falun Gong: Structure, communications, financing. China Quarterly, 171 September: 636–60. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar] and Wasserstrom (2003) Wasserstrom and Jeffrey, N. 2003. “The year of living anxiously: China's 1999”. In Twentieth-Century China: New approaches, Edited by: Wasserstrom, J. N. 256–65. London: Routledge. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]. 3. For a digest of these attacks, see the Chinese Government's website ‘Truth on Falun Gong’ available online at: www.mingjing.org.cn/e-falun/index-1.htm. Chinese version available online at: www.mingjing.org.cn/indexc.html. 4. Article 300. See Wei (1998 Wei and Luo. 1998. The 1997 criminal code of the People's Republic of China, Buffalo: William S. Hein & Co, Inc. [Google Scholar], pp. 161, 285) under ‘Crimes of Disturbing Public Order’. The other two categories of behaviour mentioned in this article are organising secret societies [huidaomen] and taking advantage of superstitions [mixin]. In the 1979 Criminal Code, the equivalent crime is classified under ‘Counterrevolutionary Crimes’ (article 99) but mentions only huidaomen and feudal superstition [fengjian mixin] – the term xiejiao does not appear (Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingfa, 1979 1979. Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingfa, Beijing: Renmin chubanshe. [Google Scholar]). 5. See, for instance, the August 1999 issue of Fayin for a selection of some ten articles and announcements attacking Falun Gong. 6. There is dispute over how many followers Falun Gong had when the suppression began in 1999. Falun Gong sources claim that it had 100 million practitioners in China and overseas at that time (faluninfo.net/faq.asp), the government that it had “two million plus” (www.china-embassy.org/eng/zt/ppflg/t36584.htm). Both of these figures are probably exaggerations. Part of the problem with estimating Falun Gong's “membership” is that the movement never had “members” – anyone could simply attend a practice session and learn the exercises, or buy and read the books. Some people who were regular attendees at practice sites (although one could and can practise alone) were more committed than others, and when the suppression occurred many simply never went back while others have found themselves in “Re-education through Labour” camps for their unwillingness to recant. 7. The Chinese Buddhist Association was formed in 1953 and is associated with the website available online at: www.buddhism.com.cn. 8. ‘Head of China's Buddhist Association Refutes Falun Gong’, 1999 Head of China's Buddhist Association refutes Falun Gong. 1999. China Daily, 1 August reprinted and available online at: www.mingjing.org.cn/e-falun/opinions/opinions142.htm [Google Scholar]. 9. See, among many other reports, ‘Falun Gong Cult Forum Held at Sacred Buddhist Site’, 2002 Falun Gong cult forum held at sacred Buddhist site. 2002. Xinhua News Agency, 25 April reprinted and available online at: www.mingjing.org.cn/e-falun/opinions/opinions212.htm [Google Scholar]. 10. See ‘Personages of Religious Circles Oppose “Falun Gong” ’ 2000 Personages of religious circles oppose Falun Gong. 2000. Memorandum on Falun Gong, available online at: 211.99.196.218/fanduixiejiao/eng/07/005.htm [Google Scholar]. For another source for the same statement, see ‘Chinese Religious Leaders and Human Rights Experts on US Religious Freedom Report’, 2003 2003. Chinese religious leaders and human rights experts on US religious freedom report. Human Rights Magazine, 4 reprinted and available online at: www.humanrights-china.org/zt/03102406/20031200412142420.htm [Google Scholar]. 11. This position is found throughout Li (1998 Li and Hongzhi. 1998. Zhuan Falun, Taibei: Yijun shudian. [Google Scholar], English translation Li, 2000 Li and Hongzhi. 2000. Zhuan Falun, New York: The Universe Publishing Company. (third translation edition) [Google Scholar]), the primary text of the movement, but see especially section two of lecture three, ‘The Buddha School Qigong and Buddhism’. See also Chen (1998a Chen and Xingqiao. 1998a. Falun Gong – yizhong zhuyou minjian zongjiao tedian de fufo waidao. Fayin, March: 21–28. April, pp. 15–22, available online at www.buddhism.com.cn/dzqk/fayin/dharma/9803/g9803f06.htm and www.buddhism.com.cn/dzqk/fayin/dharma/9804/g9804f04.htm [Google Scholar], pp. 22–24). Chen is also the author of a monograph on this subject (Chen, 1998b Chen and Xingqiao. 1998b. Fojiao qigong yu Falun Gong, Beijing: Zongjiao wenhua chubanshe. [Google Scholar]), which I have not been able to obtain. 12. On the Yiguan Dao, see Deliusin (1972) Deliusin and Lev. 1972. “The I-kuan Tao Society”. In Popular movements and secret societies in China 1840–1950, Edited by: Chesneaux, J. 225–33. Stanford: Stanford University Press. [Google Scholar] and Micollier (1998) Micollier and Evelyne. 1998. Realignments in religion and tensions over identities: Yiguan dao: An example of a ‘new religion’. China Perspectives, 19 September–October: 37–43. [Google Scholar]. 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[Google Scholar]. 14. ‘Falungong meeting to go ahead as planned’, 2001 2001. Falungong meeting to go ahead as planned. The Nation(Thailand), 26 January reprinted and available online at: www.cesnur.org/2001/falun_jan10.htm [Google Scholar]. 15. On this so-called “conversion of the barbarians” theme in Daoism, see Zürcher (1959) Zürcher and Erik. 1959. The Buddhist conquest of China: The spread and adaptation of Buddhism in early medieval China, Leiden: E.J. Brill. [Google Scholar]. 16. On this phenomenon in relation to Daoism, see Penny (1998) Penny and Benjamin. 1998. Meeting the Celestial Master. East Asian History, 15/16 July/December: 53–66. [Google Scholar]. 17. Li says, rather confusingly, that what he calls “karma” – yeli – Buddhism calls “sinful karma” – eli (Li, 1998 Li and Hongzhi. 1998. Zhuan Falun, Taibei: Yijun shudian. [Google Scholar], pp. 35–36; 2000 Li and Hongzhi. 2000. Zhuan Falun, New York: The Universe Publishing Company. (third translation edition) [Google Scholar], p. 33). 18. On the transformation of karma through cultivation, see Li (1998 Li and Hongzhi. 1998. Zhuan Falun, Taibei: Yijun shudian. [Google Scholar], pp. 164–79; 2000 Li and Hongzhi. 2000. Zhuan Falun, New York: The Universe Publishing Company. (third translation edition) [Google Scholar], pp. 147–60). 19. On “inherited burden”, see Hendrischke (1991) Hendrischke and Barbara. 1991. The concept of inherited evil in the Taiping Jing. East Asian History, 2: 1–31. [Google Scholar]. 20. For a more detailed discussion of the fashen and related issues see Penny (2002b) Penny and Benjamin. 2002b. The body of Master Li. The 2002 Charles Strong Memorial Trust Annual Lecture for the Australian Association of Religious Studies. available online at: users.senet.com.au/∼nhabel/Lectures/penny.pdf [Google Scholar]. 21. On fashen, see Li (1998 Li and Hongzhi. 1998. Zhuan Falun, Taibei: Yijun shudian. [Google Scholar], p. 99, pp. 222–23, p. 278; 2000 Li and Hongzhi. 2000. Zhuan Falun, New York: The Universe Publishing Company. (third translation edition) [Google Scholar], p. 88, pp. 200–01, 250, passim).