Organized Crime and Corruption in Iraq
2009; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 16; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/13533310802485591
ISSN1743-906X
Autores Tópico(s)Crime, Illicit Activities, and Governance
ResumoAbstract This article seeks to put organized crime in Iraq in a broad comparative perspective. It examines the evolution of organized crime in Iraq, from a largely state-controlled phenomenon under Saddam Hussein to a free market in criminality under the current regime, and identifies the factors which led to this transformation. It also delineates the most prevalent and lucrative criminal activities and identifies those groups and factions involved. It argues that organized crime activities have become the funding mechanism of choice, as well as a means to consolidate local control, for most of the actors engaged in violence in Iraq. The analysis also suggests that a struggle for control over resources related to criminal activities has itself helped to foment violence among certain groups. Consequently, combating organized crime must be central to the US mission in Iraq. The focus should be principally on criminal activities that contribute most to the insecurity of the Iraqi people. The analysis concludes by considering ways in which the power of criminal organizations can be diminished and the consequences of criminal activities mitigated. Acknowledgements The author would like to thank Steven Metz, Lawrence Cline, Alex Crowther, an anonymous referee, and several former students from the Graduate School of Public and International Affairs, University of Pittsburgh, for their helpful suggestions and comments on an earlier draft of this article. Notes Stephen J. Stedman, ‘Spoiler Problems in Peace Processes’, International Security, Vol.22, No.2, 1997, pp.5–53. Toby Dodge, ‘Securing America's Interests in Iraq: The Remaining Options’, Political Strategy Hearing Before the Committee on Foreign Relations, US Senate, 25 Jan. 2007. UNODC, Addressing Organized Crime and Drug Trafficking in Iraq: Report of the UNODC Fact Finding Mission 5–18 August 2003, Vienna, 25 Aug. 2003; Mark Edmond Clark, Understanding Balkan Organized Crime: A Key to Success in Iraq? (interview by Sean Costigan for Colombia International Affairs Online), July 2003, accessed at www.ciaonet.org/special_section/iraq/papers/clm10/clm10.html. Also see the concept of complex conflict developed by Steven Metz in Rethinking Insurgency, Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College, June 2007. Kim Gamel, ‘Petraeus: Al-Qaida Presence in Baghdad Has Been “Significantly Reduced”’, Associated Press, 28 Oct. 2007. The concept of nesting is developed in Metz (see n.2 above). Peter Andreas ‘Criminalizing Consequences of Sanctions: Embargo Busting and Its Legacy’, International Studies Quarterly, Vol.49, No.2, 2005, pp.335–60. Ibid. Testimony of Charles A. Duelfer, ‘The Oil-for-Food Program: Tracking the Funds’, Hearing Before the Committee on International Relations, US House Of Representatives, 17 Nov. 2004, accessed at www.house.gov/international–relations. Robert Looney, ‘Beyond the Iraq Study Group: The Elusive Goal of Sustained Growth’, Strategic Insights, Vol.6, No.2, Mar. 2007, accessed at www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/si/2007/Mar/looneyMar07.asp. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Jonathan Goodhand uses the terms ‘coping’, ‘shadow’ and ‘combat’ economies. See ‘Frontiers and Wars: the Opium Economy in Afghanistan’, Journal of Agrarian Economy, Vol.5, No.2, 2005, pp.191–216. See also David S. Ramirez, ‘Gaining Control of Iraq's Shadow Economy’, unpublished thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, Sept. 2007, pp.20, 61–9. UNODC (see n.2 above), p.5. Aqeel Hussein and Colin Freeman, ‘Iraqi Bomb Victims’ Bodies Held for Ransom', Sunday Telegraph, 29 Apr. 2007, accessed at www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=&/news/2007/04/29/wirq29.xml. Toby Dodge, Written testimony of Dr Toby Dodge, Consulting Senior Fellow for the Middle East, Hearings on Iraq, Senate Foreign Relations Committee, 25 Jan. 2007. Toby Dodge, ‘Chapter One: Order and Violence in Post-Saddam Iraq’, Adelphi Papers, Vol.45, No.372, 9–23, p.15. Ibid. The framework of need, greed and creed was developed in a conference entitled ‘Cleaning House: Confronting Illicit Power Structures in the Post-Conflict World’, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, 4–7 Nov. 2007. Christopher Parker and Pete W. Moore, ‘The War Economy of Iraq’, Middle East Report Online 243, Summer 2007, accessed at www.merip.org/mer/mer243/parker_moore.html. Ibid. The term ‘illicit power structures’ is drawn from the conference cited in note 18. Robert F. Worth and James Glanz, ‘Oil Graft Fuels the Insurgency, Iraq and U.S. Say’, New York Times, 5 Feb. 2006. Aram Roston and Lisa Myers, ‘“Untouchable” Corruption in Iraq Ministries’, NBC News Investigative Unit, 30 July 2007, accessed at www.msnbc.com. See CNN, ‘Draft Report: Iraq Government “not capable” of fighting corruption’, 27 Sept. 2007, accessed at www.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/meast/09/27/iraq.draft.report/index.html. James Glanz and Robert F. Worth, ‘Attacks on Iraq Oil Industry Aid Vast Smuggling Scheme’, New York Times, 4 June 2006, accessed at http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/05/international/middleeast/05corrupt.htm. Alexandra Zavis, ‘Iraqi Militants Feed on Corruption’, Los Angeles Times, 26 Oct. 2007, accessed at http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-Fg-funding26oct26,0,6888561.story?coll=la-home-center. Ibid. Ibid. Austin Long, ‘The Anbar Awakening’, Survival, Vol.50, No.2, 2008, pp.67–94, at p.77. Ibid., p.80. International Crisis Group, ‘Where Is Iraq Heading? Lessons From Basra’, Middle East Report No.67, 25 June 2007, p.i. Reidar Visser, quoted in Ben Lando, ‘Shia Parties Battle for Control of Oil-Rich Basra Region’, United Press International, 18 Aug. 2007. The Badr Corps, for example, had its origins in the Iran–Iraq war, whereas the Mahdi Army is a much more recent development. Kim Sengupta, ‘Baghdad Revealed as Bank Robbery Capital of the World’, Independent (London), 19 Sept. 2007, accessed at http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middleeast/baghdad-revealed-as-bank-robbery-capital-of-the-world-402820.html. Ibid. Monte Morin, ‘Policing a No Man's Land Between Iraq and Syria: Troops Work Against Decades-Old Smuggling Tradition’, Stars and Stripes (Mideast Edition), 11 Dec. 2005, accessed at http://www.agonist.org/story/2005/12/6/21288/5985. Edward Wong, ‘Boats, Cows, Tasty Lamb: Iraq Battles Smuggling’, New York Times, 26 Mar. 2005, accessed at http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/27/international/middleeast/27border.html. For a fuller and highly incisive analysis, see Paul Kan, ‘Drugging Babylon: The Illegal Narcotics Trade and Nation-Building in Iraq’, Small Wars and Insurgencies, Vol.18, No.2, 2007, p.216. Ibid. It is worth noting that the issue is played down in United States Department of State and Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement joint report, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report: Volume 1: Drug and Chemical Control, Washington, DC: Department of State, Mar. 2008, pp.577–8. For an overview of the Iraqi oil industry, see Amy Myers Jaffe, Iraq's Oil Sector: Past, Present and Future, Houston, TX: James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy, Rice University, Mar. 2007. ‘KTVT Investigation: Lack of Metering at Terminals Funnels Billions into Hands of Corrupt Officials and Insurgents’, CBS News, 10 Feb. 2007. Ibid., Mike Morris, as quoted. Office of the Inspector General, Oil Ministry, Iraq, Smuggling Crude Oil and Oil Products: Second Transparency Report, 2006, accessed at www.iraqrevenuewatch.org/reports/052206.pdf. The distinction used here between crude oil, imported refined or fuel products, and domestically produced refined is drawn from Pratup Chatterjee, ‘Mystery of the Missing Meters: Accounting for Iraq's Oil Flow’, Corp Watch, 22 Mar. 2007, accessed at www.corpwatch.org/article.php?id=&14427. The analysis here owes a great deal to this article and the report cited in note 31. See International Advisory and Monitoring Board (IAMB) on Iraq, Third Interim Report Covering the year 2007, accessed at www.iamb.info/pdf/iamb_02292008.pdf. Salim Hussein, director of Basra Oil Products, quoted in Bilal A. Wahab, ‘How Iraqi Oil Smuggling Greases Violence’, Middle East Quarterly, Vol.13, No.4, 2006, pp.53–9, accessed at www.meforum.org/article/1020. Institute for War and Peace Reporting, ‘Smuggling Thrives in Basra’, Iraqi Crisis Report, No.232, 7 Sept. 2007, accessed at www.iwpr.net. Environmental News Service, ‘Oil and Corruption in Iraq’, 21 Sept. 2007, accessed at www.albionmonitor.com/0709a/iraqoilcorruption.html. Office of the Inspector General, Oil Ministry, Iraq, Smuggling Crude Oil and Oil Products: Second Transparency Report (see n.43). Robert F. Worth and James Glanz, ‘Oil Graft Fuels the Insurgency, Iraq and U.S. Say’, New York Times, 5 Feb. 2006 (see n.22). Ibid. EnerPub, Iraq: Energy Profile, 14 Sept. 2007, accessed at www.energypublisher.com. Measuring Stability and Security in Iraq, June 2007 report to Congress in accordance with the Department of Defense Appropriations Act 2007, 7 June 2007, p.13. Zavis (see n.26 above). Richard A. Oppel, Jr., ‘Iraq Insurgency Runs on Stolen Oil Profits’, New York Times, 16 Mar. 2008, p.1. International Advisory and Monitoring Board (IAMB) on Iraq, Third Interim Report Covering the Year 2007, accessed at www.iamb.info/pdf/iamb_02292008.pdf. Testimony of Judge Radhi Hamza al-Radhi, Commissioner, Commission on Public Integrity, Republic of Iraq, Hearing on Assessing the State of Iraqi Corruption, US House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, 4 Oct. 2007. United Press International, ‘Ex-corruption Chief Alleges Iraq Oil Grab’, 29 Jan. 2008, accessed at www.upi.com/International_Security/Energy/Briefing/2008/01/29/ex-corruption_chief_alleges_iraq_oil_grab/6872. William Reno, ‘Protectors and Predators: Why Is There a Difference Among West African Militias?’, in Louise Andersen, Bjørn Moller and Finn Stepputat (eds), Fragile States and Insecure People?: Violence, Security, and Statehood in the Twenty-First Century, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, pp.99–122. This distinction draws from that between stationary and roving bandits in Mancur Olson, Power and Prosperity: Outgrowing Communist and Capitalist Dictatorships, New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. ‘Anbari Trucks, Mahdi Guns, & High-Volume-Trade’, Iraqslogger, 2 Oct. 2007, accessed at www.iraqslogger.com. Jeffrey Bartholet, ‘How Al-Sadr May Control U.S. Fate in Iraq’, Newsweek, 4 Dec. 2006, accessed at http://www.newsweek.com/id/43928. Ibid. See ‘Iraq: Kidnapping Poses New Security Threat’, Oxford Analytica, 22 Apr. 2004, accessed at www.oxan.com. Kirk Semple, ‘Among Iraq's Many Travails Kidnapping Business Flourishes’, International Herald Tribune, 7 May 2006, accessed at http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/05/07/news/kidnap.php. Anne Barnard, ‘Lethal Alliance Fuels Kidnappings’, Boston Globe, 25 Sept. 2004, accessed at http://www.boston.com/news/world/middleeast/articles/2004/09/25/lethal_alliance_fuels_kidnappings/ Daniel McGrory, ‘How $45 m Secretly Bought Freedom of Hostages’, The Times (London), 22 May 2006, accessed at www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/iraq/article723364.ece. Ibid. On Japan, see ‘Article Hints Japan Paid Ransom for Hostages in Iraq, Manipulated Public Opinion’, Tokyo, Gendai (in Japanese), 1 June 2004, pp.260–7. The allegations against the Arroyo government of the Philippines can be found in The Daily Tribune, and were widely publicized by Michelle Malkin and other conservative bloggers in the United States. The Iraqi newspaper Al-Shira suggests that the government of the Philippines was surprised to find that ‘obtaining money was the real demand’. See ‘Iraqi Paper Says Kidnapping Becomes “Profitable Trade”’, Al-Shira (Baghdad) (in Arabic), 2 Oct. 2004, supplied by BBC Worldwide Monitoring, accessed at www.lexisnexis.com. Charles Recknagel, ‘Kidnapping Becomes Iraq's Growth Industry’, 30 Sept. 2004, accessed at www.albionmonitor.com/0410a/iraqhostagemoney.html. Iraq Index, accessed at www.brookings.edu/saban/iraq-index.aspx. Haifa Zangana, ‘Blair Made a Pledge to Iraqis Once’, Guardian, 22 April 2005; Samir Haddad and Mazin Ghazi, ‘Who Resists and Who Kidnaps’, accessed at www.islamonline.net, 14 Sept. 2004; Peter Beaumont, ‘Kidnappers Target Youth of Baghdad’, The Observer, 29 Feb. 2004, accessed at http://observer.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,6903,1158675,00.html. Iraq Index (see n.71 above). Yochi J. Dreazen, ‘US, Iraq Launch Campaign to Cut Oil Smuggling’, Wall Street Journal, 15 Mar. 2007, Section A, Column S, p.1. General James L. Jones, USMC (Ret.), Chairman, Independent Commission on the Security Forces of Iraq, p.9, accessed at http://i.a.cnn.net/cnn/2007/imnages/08/05/jonesreportpart1a.pdf. Ibid., p.10.
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