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Druzhba Narodov or second-class citizenship? Soviet Asian migrants in a post-colonial world

2007; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 26; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/02634930802018463

1465-3354

Jeff Sahadeo,

Communism, Protests, Social Movements

Abstract Increasing numbers of citizens from the eastern and southern regions of the USSR sought and obtained residence in the ‘two capitals’ of Leningrad and Moscow following the Second World War. This article exposes the uniqueness of late Soviet periphery to core migration, all the while placing it within a global post-colonial framework. Soviet policies that promoted the ‘friendship of peoples’ spared migrants from the Caucasus, Central Asia, and Asian regions of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic the ethnic violence and ghettoization that accompanied parallel movements to Western industrial capitals. Most appreciated the opportunities that awaited them, even as social spending on the periphery forestalled substantial economic migration. This paper argues nonetheless that subtle tensions existed on official and unofficial levels. Oral histories as well as sociological surveys demonstrate that nationalist and racist ideas and encounters challenged the friendship of peoples. Migration emerges as a complex and personal process as Asian residents of Leningrad and Moscow weighed possibilities, benefits, and risks of integration or separation. I thank Antoinette Burton, Adrienne Edgar, Terry Martin, Douglas Northrop and the anonymous reviewer for their comments on various versions of this paper. I also received useful input from the Nationhood and Narrative in Central Asia Regional Seminar of the Higher Education Support Project, the Central Eurasia Working Group at the University of California—Berkeley, and the 2006 and 2007 Annual Conventions of the Central Eurasian Studies Society and the American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies. Adeeb Khalid provided excellent editorial guidance and intellectual inspiration. The Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada provided funding for this project. Notes 1. E. B. Bernaskoni, ed, Moskva: dlia vsekh stolitsa (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1982). 2. R. Dement'eva, ‘Serdtse Rodiny nashei’, in ibid, pp 17–33. See also Moskva: vchera i segodnia (Moscow, Moskovskii rabochii, 1978), and I. U. Aleksandrovskii, Moskva: Dialog putevoditel' (Moscow, Moskovskii rabochii, 1983). 3. Rogers Brubaker, ‘The “diaspora” diaspora’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol 28, No 1, 2005, pp 3–7. 4. On the core–periphery structure of the global economy, see Immanuel Wallerstein, The Capitalist World-Economy: Essays (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979) and his numerous other works. 5. Francine Hirsch, Empire of Nations: Ethnographic Knowledge and the Making of the Soviet Union (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005). 6. On the relationship between nationalities and a ‘Soviet people’, see Razvitie natsional'nykh otnoshenii v SSSR (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1986), p 123. 7. Kwame Anthony Appiah, ‘Racisms’, in David Theo Goldberg, ed, Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolism MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1990), pp 1–5; for a discussion of Appiah's ideas in a post-Soviet context, see Sascha Goluboff, Jewish Russians: Upheavals in a Moscow Synagogue (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004). 8. Nancy Foner and George Fredrickson, ‘Immigration, race, and ethnicity in the United States: social constructions and social relations’, in Nancy Foner and George Fredrickson, eds, Not Just Black or White: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Immigration, Race, and Ethnicity in the United States (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2004), p 2. 9. Eric D. Weitz, ‘Racial politics without the concept of race: reevaluating Soviet ethnic and national purges’, Slavic Review, Vol 61, No 1, 2002, p 3. On ‘Stalinist primordialism’ and how the Soviets presented national differences as fixed, see Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1932–1939 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001). On how these categories resonated, see Z. V. Sikevich, Peterburzhtsy: etnosotial'nye aspekty massogo soznaniia (St Petersburg: Sankt-Petersburgskii gosudarstvennyi universitet, 1995). 10. Martin, op cit, Ref 9, pp 442–450. 11. On these legacies from the Russian east, see Yuri Slezkine, Arctic Mirrors: Russia and the Small Peoples of the North (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994); in the Causcasus, see Susan Layton, Russian Literature and Empire: The Conquest of the Caucasus from Pushkin to Tolstoy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); in Central Asia, see Jeff Sahadeo, Russian Colonial Society in Tashkent, 1856–1923 (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2007). 12. Some—particularly Georgians and Armenians, and those of mixed heritage—may justifiably claim a ‘non-Asian’ status on the basis of history, ethnicity, or religion. I believe nonetheless that the term has utility for this study's purposes. 13. On the range of influences stemming from migration from former colonies, see Paul Gilroy, Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993). On the challenges of identifying and interpreting the experiences of diaspora communities, see James Clifford, ‘Diasporas’, Cultural Anthropology, Vol 9, No 3, 1994, pp 302–338, and William Safran, ‘Diasporas in modern societies: myths of homeland and return’, Diaspora Vol 1, No 1, 1991, pp 83–99. 14. Ania Loomba, Colonialism/Postcolonialism (London: Routledge, 1998), p 12. 15. Robert Young, Postcolonialism: A Historical Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell, 2001), pp 4–5. 16. John McLeod, Beginning Postcolonialism (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000); see also Barbara Bush, Imperialism and Postcolonialism (Harlow, UK: Pearson, 2006). 17. Yuri Slezkine, ‘The USSR as a communal apartment, or how the Soviet state promoted ethnic particularism’, Slavic Review, Vol 52, No 2, 1994, pp 414–452. 18. Douglas Northrop, Veiled Empire: Gender and Power in Stalinist Central Asia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004), p 22. For a similar view, see Paula Michaels, Curative Powers: Medicine and Empire in Stalin's Central Asia (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2003). 19. Adeeb Khalid sees a ‘mobilizational state’ seeking to lift the disadvantaged from backwardness. Khalid, ‘Backwardness and the quest for civilization: early Soviet Central Asia in comparative perspective’, Slavic Review, Vol 65, No 2, 2006, p 251. See also Marianne Kamp, The New Women in Uzbekistan: Islam, Modernity, and Unveiling under Communism (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 2006). Peter A. Blitstein argues that if ‘the Soviet Union was a colonial project, then it was so distinctive to determine the question of whether it was worth calling it such.’ Blitstein, ‘Cultural diversity and the interwar conjuncture: Soviet nationality policy in a comparative context’, Slavic Review, Vol 65, No 2, 2006, p 293. 20. Adrienne Edgar, ‘Bolshevism, patriarchy, and the nation: the Soviet ‘emancipation’ of Muslim women in pan-Islamic perspective', Slavic Review, Vol 65, No 2, 2006, p 272. 21. On the challenges of research in the 1930s, see Sheila Fitzpatrick and Lynne Viola, eds, A Researcher's Guide to Sources on Soviet Social History in the 1930s (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1990). 22. Some of these interviews were conducted by myself, and others by graduate assistants Lissa Greenspoon and Shakhnozah Matnazarova. Interviews and follow-up questions were done in person, over the phone, and by e-mail. We sought informants from a broad spectrum of ‘Soviet Asians’. Respondents were drawn via ‘snowball method’ from North America, Russia and the former Soviet Union, though all lived in Soviet Leningrad and Moscow between 1945 and 1991. Interviews primarily consisted of those who came to the city as students or professionals. Names of interviewees cited below are pseudonyms. 23. On nostalgia, see Svetlana Boym, The Future of Nostalgia (New York: Basic Books, 2001). 24. I deal with this issue in more detail in ‘Stereotypes and nostalgia in oral histories of Soviet-era ethnic relations’, unpublished conference paper presented at the Central Eurasian Studies Society Annual Convention, Seattle, WA, 20 October 2007. 25. The difficulties that we experienced in communicating ideas of multiculturalism and race, for example, to our informants will be an important part of the larger project, but remains outside the scope of this paper. 26. Alistair Thomson, ‘Making the most of memories: the empirical and subjective value of oral history’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th Ser., Vol 9, 1999, p 291. 27. Galina Starovoitova, ‘Problemy etnosotsiologii inoetnicheskoi gruppy v sovremennom gorode: na materialakh issledovaniia tatar v Leningrade’, PhD dissertation, Institut etnografii im. N. N Miklukho-Maklaia AN SSR, 1980, and the subsequent book, Etnicheskaia gruppa v sovremennom sovetskom gorode; sotsiologicheskie ocherki (Leningrad: Nauka, 1987). 28. N. A. Aktov, ed, Sovetskii gorod: sotsial'naia struktura (Moscow: Mysl, 1988). For an earlier study, see M. Ia. Vydro, Naselenie Moskvy po materialam perepisi 1871–1970 gg. (Moscow: Statistika, 1976). 29. Rasma Karklins, Ethnic Relations in the USSR: The View from Below (Boston, MA: Allen & Unwin, 1987), p 154. 30. N. S. Goncharova, ‘Tatarskoe naselenie Moskvy. Gendernye aspekt’, in I. M. Semashko, ed, Gendernye problemy v obshchestvennykh naukakh (Moscow: RAN, Instit. etno. antro im. N. N, Miklykho-Maklaia, 2001), p 203. 31. Martin, op cit, Ref 9, pp 406–413 32. Itogi vsesoiuznoi perepisi 1959 goda RSFSR (Moscow: Gosstatizdat, 1962), p 316. 33. Yaacov Ro'i notes reports of 40,000 gathering for Eid celebrations. Yaacov Ro'i, Islam in the Soviet Union: From the Second World War to Gorbachev (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), p 75n. 34. On the act, see Romain Garbaye, ‘British citizens and ethnic minorities in the post-war era: from xenophobic agitation to multiethnic government’, Immigrants and Minorities, Vol 22, No 2–3, 2003, p 299. 35. Nancy Foner, In a New Land: A Comparative View of Immigration (New York: New York University Press, 2005), p 132. 36. Garbaye, op cit, Ref 34, p 300. 37. Non-white minorities composed 25 per cent of the population of the inner city in 1991, a number that had grown to 34 per cent by 2000. Chris Hamnett, Unequal City: London in the Global Arena (London: Routledge, 2003), pp 108–111. 38. Cynthia Buckley, ‘The myth of managed migration: migration control and market in the Soviet period’, Slavic Review, Vol 54, No 4, 1995, pp 904–905. 39. Meredith Roman, ‘Making Caucasians black: Moscow since the fall of communism and the racialization of non-Russians’, Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, Vol 18, No 2, 2002, p 6. 40. Vsesoiuznaia perepis' naseleniia 1970 goda: Sbornik statei (Moscow: Statistika, 1976), pp 248–249. 41. Richard A. Lewis, Richard. H. Rowland and Ralph S. Clem, Nationality and Population Change in Russia and the USSR: An Evaluation of Census Data, 1897–1970 (New York, Praeger, 1976), pp 354–381. 42. Itogi vsesoiuznoi perepisi naseleniia 1989 g. Tom VII. chast' 1 (Moscow: Statistika, 1991). 43. Vera Glubova, ‘Zaboty mnogonatsional'nogo goroda’, Arkhitektura i stroitel'stva Moskvy, 1989, 9, p 8. 44. Barbara Anderson and Brian Silver, ‘Estimating Russification of ethnic identity among the non-Russians of the USSR’, Demography, Vol 20, No 4, 1983, pp 461–489. 45. Olga Vendina, ‘Social polarization and ethnic segregation in Moscow’, Eurasian Geography and Economics, Vol 43, No 3, 2002, p 228. 46. Communication with Shuhrat Ikramov, 12 March 2007. 47. Stuart Hall, ‘The local and the global: globalkization and identity’, in A. D. King, ed, Culture, Globalization, and the World-System: Contemporary Conditions for the Representation of Identity (Basingstoke: McMillan, 1991), p 24. 48. Communication with Shuhrat Ikramov, 12 March 2007. 49. Communication with Aryuna Khamangova, 12 February 2007. 50. Sahadeo, op cit, Ref 11, ch 8. Lenin overruled arguments from Communists in the region, who pleaded for the establishment of a local industrial base in order to modernize Central Asia. On similarities between Western and Soviet models of exploitation of the periphery, see John Comaroff, ‘Humanity, ethnicity, nationality: conceptual and comparative perspectives on the USSR’, Theory and Society, Vol 23, No 1, 1994, pp 47–78 and Kate Brown, ‘Gridded lives: why Kazakhstan and Montana are nearly the same place’, American Historical Review, Vol 106, No 1, 2001, pp 17–48. 51. Nancy Lubin, Labour and Nationality in Soviet Central Asia: An Uneasy Compromise (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984), p 205. 52. Sahadeo, ‘The legacy of the friendship of peoples: Russia's ethnic problems have Soviet roots’, Russia Profile, Vol 7, No 4, 2007, pp 22–24. See also Roman, op cit, Ref 39. 53. Lubin, op cit, Ref 51, p 128. 54. Ibid, pp 25–51. 55. Murray Feshbach, ‘Prospects for outmigration from Central Asia and Kazakhstan in the next decade’, Soviet Economy in a Time of Change (Washington, DC: USGPO, 1979), p 662. 56. William Fierman has argued that these campaigns enjoyed limited success; most returned to their republics as soon as, if not before, the end of work or study programmes in ‘Central Asian youth and migration’, in William Fierman, ed, Soviet Central Asia: The Failed Transformation (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991), pp 257, 268. 57. L. V. Makarova et al., Regional'nye osobennosti migratsionnykh protsessov SSSR (Moscow: Nauka, 1986), p 86. 58. Arif Iusupov, ‘Azerbaizhandtsy v Rossii- smena imidzha i sotsial'inykh rolei’, Diaspory, 2001, 1, p 113. 59. Emil A. Draitser, Taking Penguins to the Movies: Ethnic Humor in Russia (Detroit, MI: Wayne State Universiry Press, 1998), p 36. Several interviewees recall the presence of Caucasians at urban markets. 60. Iusupov, op cit, Ref 58, p 114. 61. Buckley, op cit, Ref 38, p 908. 62. Dietrich Andre Loeber, ‘Limitchiki: on the legal status of migrant workers in large Soviet Cities’, Soviet Union/Union Soviétique, Vol 11, No 3, 1984, pp 301–308. 63. On the Soviet desire to display this image, see Roman, op cit, Ref 39, p 2. 64. On the pride associated with being part of a superpower, see Roman, op cit, Ref 39, p 7; on internationalism, see also Hilary Pilkington, Migration, Displacement and Identity in Post-Soviet Russia (London: Rouledge, 1998). 65. Oksana Karpenko, ‘Byt’ “natsional'nym”: strakh poteriat' i strakh poteriatsia. Na primere tatar St. Peterburga', in V. Vornokova and I. Osval'd, eds, Konstruktirovanie Etnichnosti: Etnicheskie obshchiny Sankt-Peterburga (St. Petersburg: Izdatel'stvo ‘Dmitry Bulanin’, 1998). 66. Liubov' Ostapenko and Irina Subbotina, ‘Problemy sotsial'no-ekonomicheskii adaptsii vykhodtsev iz Zakavkaz'ia v Moskve’, Diaspory, 2000, 1, p 50. 67. Communication with Murad Imamaliev, 8 February 2007. 68. Kate A. Baldwin, Beyond the Color Line and the Iron Curtain: Reading Encounters between Black and Red, 1922–1963 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002). 69. Dement'eva, op cit, Ref 2, p 17; Vydro, op cit, Ref 28, p 29. 70. See, for example, ‘Guests of Soviet Muslims from the Yemen Arab Republic’, Muslims of the Soviet East, 1985, 1, p 16. 71. V. M. Moiseenko, Naselenie Moskvy: proshloe, nastoiashchee, budushchee (Moscow: Nauchnoe Izdanie, 1992); Moskva v tsifrakh za gody Sovetskoi vlasti: Statisticheskii sbornik (Moscow: Statisticheskoe upravlenie, 1978–1989). 72. Ellen Mickiewicz and Dawn Plumb Jamison, ‘Ethnicity and the Soviet television news’, in Masha Siefert, ed, Mass Culture and Perestroika in the Soviet Union (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp 154–158. 73. Loeber, op cit, Ref 62, p301. 74. Stephen L. Burg, ‘Central Asian political participation’, in Yaacov Ro'I, ed, The USSR and the Muslim World (London: Allen & Unwin, 1984), p 53. 75. Starovoitova's study reports that over 95 per cent of Tatars and Armenians in Leningrad spoke Russian ‘freely’, Starovoitova, 1987, op cit, Ref 27, p 96. 76. 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See Vilen Ivanov, ‘The ethnic question’, in Christopher Williams, Vladimir Chuprov and Vladimir Staroverov, eds, Russian Society in Transition (Brookfield, VT: Dartmouth, 1996). See also Draitser, op cit, Ref 59, pp 40–45. 87. Karklins, op cit, Ref 29, p 92. 88. Communication with Diane P. Koenker, Urbana, IL, Fall 1994. 89. Richard Rowland, ‘Nationality population distribution, redistribution, and degree of separation in Moscow, 1979–1989’, Nationalities Papers, Vol 26, No 4, 1998, pp 705–721. 90. On the ‘contact zone’, see Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Studies in Travel Writing and Transculturation (London: Routledge, 1992). 91. Communication with Zhamila Sadybekova, 23 May 2007. 92. Communication with Aryuna Khamagova, 12 February 2007. 93. Communication with Marat Tursunbaev, 15 May 2007. 94. Communication with Shuhrat Ikramov, 12 March 2007. 95. Communication with Aryuna Khamagova, 12 February 2007. 96. Garbaye, op cit, Ref 34, pp 306–309. 97. 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Hilary Pilkington, ‘The future is ours: youth culture in Russia, 1953 to the present’, in Catriona Kelly and David Shepherd, eds, Russian Cultural Studies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), p 378. 113. Ro'i, op cit, Ref 33, p 707. 114. Ibid, p 653. 115. G. Beliaeva, D. Draguskii and L. Zotova, ‘Mnogonatsional'nyi mir Moskvy’, Druzhba narodov, 1993, 4, p 138. The survey included 447 members of Moscow's minorities, 60 per cent of whom had higher education. 116. Ibid; Glubova, op cit, Ref 43, p 8. 117. Communication with Zhamila Sadybekova, 23 May 2007; Oidin Nosirova, 15 May 2007. 118. I. V. Arutiunian, ‘Armiane-Moskvichi. Sotsial'nyi portret po materialam etnosotsiologicheskago issledovanie’, Sovetskoe etnografiia, 1991, 2, p 8. 119. Communication with Shuhrat Ikramov, 12 March 2007. 120. Arutiunian, op cit, Ref 118, pp 13–14. 121. Ibid, p 13. 122. Communication with Oidin Nosirova, 15 May 2007 123. Olga Brednikova and Elena Chikadze, ‘Armiane Sankt-Peterburga: kar'ery etnichnosti’, Konstruirovanie Etnichnosti, 230, op cit, Ref 65. 124. Sikevich, op cit, Ref 9, p 124. 125. Communications with Zurab Iashvili, 23 January 2007; Rafael Voskanyan, 20 December 2006; see also Sikevich, op cit, Ref 9, p 124. 126. Beliaeva et al., op cit, Ref 115, p 138. 127. Ibid, pp 147–148. 128. Vendina, op cit, Ref 45, p 227. 129. Karpenko, op cit, Ref 65, p 48. 130. Ibid. 131. Communication with Elmira Jumagulov, 31 July 2007. 132. Hall, op cit, Ref 47, p 24. 133. Interview with Chingiz Aitmatov, 24 May 2007. Qantara.de, ‘Dialogue with the Islamic world’, available at www.qantara.de/webcom/show_article.php/_c-310/_nr-426/i.html (last accessed 25 August 2007). 134. Communication with Murad Imamaliev, 8 February 2007. 135. Communication with Anara Zakirov, 2 August 2007. 136. Arutiunian, op cit, Ref 118, 11; see also, see also Brednikova and Chikadze, op cit, Ref 123, p 246. 137. 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