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From Cape Breton to Vancouver Island: Studying the Scots in Canada

2011; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 29; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/02619288.2011.577594

1744-0521

Michael E. Vance,

Australian History and Society

Abstract This historiographical essay surveys scholarship on Scottish settlement in Canada which it classifies into three broad categories: first, works that focus on the contribution of notable Scots; second, scholarship that examines the 'Scottish' character of Nova Scotia; and third, investigations of Highland enclave settlements – especially in eastern Canada. The study argues that the relatively neglected experience of Scots in British Columbia offers the most fruitful comparison with the circumstances of Scottish settlers in New Zealand. In both contexts, Scottish migration contributed to the dispossession of large numbers of indigenous peoples even as some Scots contributed significantly to trade unionism and international socialist movements that sought to bring social justice to all peoples regardless of ethnicity. Keywords: Scotshistoriographysettlementindigenous peopleslabour relations Notes [1] MacLean MacLean, Raymond A. 'McLeod, Norman.' Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. [Google Scholar], 'McLeod, Norman'; Molloy Molloy, Maureen. 'McLeod, Norman.' Dictionary of New Zealand Biography Online, http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/biographies/1m39/1 (accessed March 9, 2011) [Google Scholar], 'McLeod, Norman'; Robinson Robinson, Neil. 1997. To the Ends of the Earth: Norman McLeod and the Highlanders' Migration to Nova Scotia and New Zealand, Auckland: Harper Collins. [Google Scholar], To the Ends of the Earth; McPherson McPherson, Flora. 1962. Watchman Against the World: The Story of Norman McLeod and His People, London: Robert Hale. [Google Scholar], Watchman Against the World; Richards Richards, Eric. 'The Last of the Clan and Other Highland Emigrants.' In Brooking and Jennie Coleman The Heather and the Fern, 33–47. [Google Scholar], 'The Last of the Clan', 45; and Brooking Brooking, Tom. 2003. "Sharing Out the Haggis: The Special Scottish Contribution to New Zealand History". 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Smith, who was born in Forres, was inspired to join the fur trade by the example of his uncle John Stuart. Less generally acknowledged, however, is the role of indigenous networks in assisting the careers of many early fur traders. Smith's wife Isabella Hardistry, who was of mixed Scottish and native ancestry, was the daughter of the Hudson Bay Company's chief trader in Rigolet, Labrador, where Smith began his career, and she moved in with him when he took over the trading post. As a consequence of her native ancestry, Isabella was at times the object of ridicule when the couple left Labrador, ultimately for a life of wealth and privilege in Montreal and London, but Smith remained loyal to her and went to great lengths to assure that their marriage was accepted as legitimate. Other traders were less scrupulous. See Reford, 'Smith, Donald Alexander'. [8] Evans Evans, A. Margaret MacLaren. 1976. "The Scot as Politician". In The Scottish Tradition in Canada, Edited by: Reid, W. 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In Rider and McNabb A Kingdom of the Mind, 242–59. [Google Scholar], 'Butcher, Baker, Cabinet Maker?'. [9] Rattray Rattray, William Jordan. 1880–1884. The Scot in British North America, 4 vols, Toronto: Mclear. [Google Scholar] even included a chapter on notable Scots in British Columbia in his final and fourth volume of The Scot in British North America, 1101–21. [10] Bumsted Bumsted, J. M. 1982. The Scots in Canada, Ottawa: Canadian Historical Association. [Google Scholar], The Scots in Canada. [11] Harper Harper, Marjory. 1998. Emigration from Scotland between the Wars: Opportunity or Exile?, Manchester: Manchester University Press. [Google Scholar], Emigration from Scotland between the Wars; and Bumsted, The Scots in Canada, 10, 17. [12] Objections to the creation of the Nova Scotia tartan were voiced at the time by some Scottish descendants who complained that anyone in the province could wear the tartan whether they were Scottish or not. McKay McKay, Ian. 1994. The Quest of the Folk: Antimodernism and Cultural Selection in Twentieth-Century Nova Scotia, Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. [Google Scholar], The Quest of the Folk, 206–12; McKay McKay, Ian. Spring 1992. Tartanism Triumphant: The Construction of Scottishness in Nova Scotia, 1933– 1954. Acadiensis, 21(2): 5–47. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 'Tartanism Triumphant'; and McKay and Bates McKay, Ian and Bates, Robin. 2010. In the Province of History: The Making of the Public Past in Twentieth Century Nova Scotia, Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. [Google Scholar], In the Province of History. [13] Harper and Vance Harper, Marjory and Vance, Michael E., eds. 1999. Myth, Migration and the Making of Memory: Scotia and Nova Scotia c. 1700–1990, Halifax & Edinburgh: Fernwood & John Donald. [Google Scholar], Myth, Migration and the Making of Memory,14–48. [14] MacDonald MacDonald, Gordon. 1928. The Highlanders of Waipu or Echoes of 1745: A Scottish Odyssey, Dunedin: Coulls Somerville Wilkie. [Google Scholar], The Highlanders of Waipu or Echoes of 1745. [15] Vance Vance, Michael E. 'Powerful Pathos: the Triumph of Scottishness in Nova Scotia.' In Ray Transatlantic Scots, 156–79. [Google Scholar], 'Powerful Pathos'; and Dembling Dembling, Jonathan. 2005. "You Play It as You Would Sing It: Cape Breton, Scottishness, and the Means of Cultural Production". In Transatlantic Scots, Edited by: Ray, Celeste. 180–97. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. [Google Scholar], 'You Play It as You Would Sing It'. [16] Hornsby drew his sample from Donald Whyte's Dictionary of Scottish Emigrants to Canada before Confederation (Toronto: Ontario Genealogical Society, 1986). See Hornsby Hornsby, Stephen J. 1992. Patterns of Scottish Emigration to Canada, 1750–1870. Journal of Historical Geography, 18(4): 387–416. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 'Patterns of Scottish Emigration'. 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[18] The Red River settlement was located in territory controlled by the Hudson's Bay Company rather than an appointed colonial governor and legislative assembly. For the history of the Highland settlement of the colony, see Bumsted Bumsted, J. M. 1982. The Peoples' Clearance, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. [Google Scholar], The Peoples' Clearance; and Bumsted Bumsted, J. M. 2003. Trials and Tribulations: The Red River Settlement and the Emergence of Manitoba 1811–1870, Winnipeg: Great Plains Publications. [Google Scholar], Trials and Tribulations. An early nineteenth-century account is Alexander Ross's Ross, Alexander. 1856. The Red River Settlement: Its Rise Progress and Present State, London: Smith, Elder. [Google Scholar] The Red River Settlement. [19] Charles Dunn's Dunn, Charles W. 1953. Highland Settler: A Portrait of the Scottish Gael in Cape Breton and Eastern Nova Scotia, Toronto: University of Toronto Press. [Google Scholar] Highland Settler continues to be reprinted by Breton Books for the Nova Scotia tourist market. [20] Margaret Bennett also studied the Cape Breton Gaelic speakers who settled in western Newfoundland in The Last Stronghold Bennett, Margaret. 1989. The Last Stronghold: The Scottish Gaelic Traditions of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland: Breakwater Books. [Google Scholar]. Oatmeal and the Catechism Bennett, Margaret. 1998. Oatmeal and the Catechism: Scottish Gaelic Settlers in Quebec, Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press. [Google Scholar] is her study of the Highland enclave in the Eastern Townships. [21] The studies undertaken by Norton Norton, Wayne. 1994. 'Help Us to a Better Land': Crofter Colonies in the Prairie West, Regina, Saskatchewan: Canadian Plains Research Center. [Google Scholar], 'Help Us to a Better Land'; and Harper Harper, Marjory. 1994. Crofter Colonists in Canada: An Experiment in Empire Settlement. Northern Scotland, 14: 69–111. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 'Crofter Colonists in Canada', which examine the crofter colonies established on the Canadian prairies in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, are further examples of the migration and settlement approach. [22] See Little, Crofters and Habitants; Little Little, J. I. 1996. The Bard in a Community in Transition and Decline: Oscar Dhu and the Hebridean Scots of the Upper St. Francis District, Quebec. Canadian Papers in Rural History, 10: 45–79. [Google Scholar], 'The Bard in a Community'; Little Little, J. I. 1995. Popular Voices in Print: the Local Newspaper Correspondents of an Extended Scots-Canadian Community, 1894. Journal of Canadian Studies, 30(3): 34–55. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 'Popular Voices in Print'; and Little Little, J. I. 1994. Popular Resistance to Legal Authority in the Upper St. Francis District of Quebec: The Megantic Outlaw Affair of 1888–89. Labour/La Travial, 33: 97–124. [Google Scholar], 'Popular Resistance to Legal Authority'. For the British American Land Company and the role of Alexander Tilloch Galt, see Little Little, J. I. 1989. Nationalism, Capitalism, and Colonization in Nineteenth-Century Quebec: The Upper St. Francis District, Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. [Google Scholar], Nationalism, Capitalism, and Colonization, 36–63; and Kesteman Kesteman, Jean-Pierre. 'Galt, Sir Alexander Tilloch.' Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, http://www.biographi.ca (accessed March 9, 2011). [Google Scholar], 'Galt, Sir Alexander Tilloch'. A good deal has been written about John Galt and his earlier work for another commercial concern, the Canada Company, which established settlers in western Ontario but, surprisingly, there have not been any modern studies of the Highland and Lowland settlers of these communities. The existing literature is summarised in Lucille Campey's Campey, Lucille H. 2005. The Scottish Pioneers of Upper Canada: Glengarry and Beyond, Toronto: Natural Heritage Books. [Google Scholar] The Scottish Pioneers of Upper Canada, one of several books she has written in order to provide regional overviews of Scottish settlement in Canada for the general reader. [23] Harper Harper, Marjory. 1988. Emigration from North-East Scotland, 2 vols, Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press. [Google Scholar], Emigration from North-East Scotland, 1: 215–24; Cowan Cowan, E. J. 1992. "From the Southern Uplands to Southern Ontario: Nineteenth-Century Emigration from the Scottish Borders". In Scottish Emigration and Scottish Society, Edited by: Devine, T. M. 61–83. Edinburgh: John Donald. [Google Scholar], 'From the Southern Uplands to Southern Ontario'; and Vance Vance, Michael E. 2001. "Advancement, Moral Worth and Freedom": The Meaning of Independence for Early Nineteenth-Century Lowland Emigrants to Upper Canada". In Nation and Province in the First British Empire: Scotland and the Americas, 1600–1800, Edited by: Landsman, Ned C. 151–80. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press. [Google Scholar], 'Advancement, Moral Worth and Freedom'. [24] For emigrant Highlanders' destination alternatives see Richards, 'The Last of the Clan'; and Richards, 'Leaving the Highlands'. Among many articles that Marjory Harper has published on Scottish emigrants to Canada are 'A Gullible Pioneer? Harper, Marjory. 1986. A Gullible Pioneer? Lord Aberdeen and the Development of Fruit Farming in the Okanagan Valley, 1890–1921. British Journal of Canadian Studies, 1(2): 256–81. [Google Scholar]'; and 'Cossar's Colonists Harper, Marjory. 1998. Cossar's Colonists: Juvenile Migration to New Brunswick in the 1920s. Acadiensis, 28(1): 47–65. [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]'. 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Islands of Truth: The Imperial Fashioning of Vancouver Island, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. [Google Scholar], Islands of Truth; and Harris Harris, R. Cole. 2002. Making Native Space: Colonialism, Resistance and Reserves in British Columbia, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. [Google Scholar], Making Native Space. [27] Crawley's report continued 'From Whykokomagh also… the Indians have complained to me not only of the encroachment of the Scotch settlers, and of their depredations on the timber in that reserve, but also that their hay and crops are destroyed by the same trespassers, who throw down fences to admit their own cattle; and the Indians are afraid to resist'. According to Crawley, the Courts offered no protection for Indian property because no jury would find against the squatters and as a solution he advocated the right to vote be given to 'the heads of Indian families'. Instead, after two decades of native protest, the legislature confirmed possession to long-term squatters on native land. See H.W. Crawley to Joseph Howe, February 1, 1849, Journal and Proceedings of the House of Assembly (Halifax, Nova Scotia: Richard Nugent, 1849), 355–6; Bittermann Bittermann, Rusty. 1988. The Hierarchy of the Soil: Land and Labour in a Nineteenth Century Cape Breton Community. Acadiensis, 18(1): 33–55. [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 'The Hierarchy of the Soil'; and Calloway Calloway, Colin G. 2008. White People, Indians, and Highlanders: Tribal Peoples and Colonial Encounters in Scotland and America, Oxford: Oxford University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], White People, Indians, and Highlanders, 208–12. [28] Barman Barman, Jean. 2007. The West Beyond the West: A History of British Columbia, Toronto: University of Toronto Press. [Google Scholar], The West Beyond the West; and Belich Belich, James. 2001. Making Peoples: A History of New Zealanders, from Polynesian Settlement to the end of the Nineteenth Century, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. [Google Scholar], Making Peoples. [29] Despite the prominent position of her husband, Amelia Douglas also suffered from this discrimination. See Van Kirk Van Kirk, Sylvia. 1999. "Colonised Lives: The Native Wives and Daughters of Five Founding Families of Victoria". In Pacific Empires: Essays in Honour of Glyndwr Williams, Edited by: Frost, Alan and Samson, Jane. 215–33. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. [Google Scholar], 'Colonised Lives'; Van Kirk Van Kirk, Sylvia. 1980. Many Tender Ties: Women in Fur Trade Society in Western Canada, Winnipeg: Watson & Dyer. [Google Scholar], Tender Ties; Brown Brown, Jennifer. 1980. Strangers in Blood: Fur Trade Company Families in Indian Country, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. 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I have estimated that approximately 480 individuals of a combined total of more than 7,500 west coast fishers were Scottish-born or of Scottish origin. See Vance Vance, Michael E. Summer 2008. "Mon He's a Gran Fish": Scots in British Columbia's Interwar Fishing Industry. BC Studies, 158: 33–60. [Google Scholar], '"Mon He's a Gran Fish"', 39–41. [36] For the Wallace brothers see Vance, '"Mon He's a Gran Fish"', 37. The patent for the Kiltie brand was acquired by a rival firm in the 1920s. See British Columbia Packers Fonds, 'New Zealand "Kiltie", 1922–1958', Series 5, Sub-series 3, File # 255, Richmond City Archives, Richmond, British Columbia. In the same period BC Packers marketed a series of brands in New Zealand with Canadian imagery, such as the 'Jack Canuck' and 'Snow Shoe' brands, as well as others with British and Scottish imagery such as the 'Imperial' and 'St. Mungo' brands. [37] Vance, '"Mon He's a Gran Fish"', 35–46. [38] Included in their ranks were a significant number of Scots. John Belshaw's estimate places their number at 18.9% in 1881. One of the most infamous of these Scots was Robert Dunsmuir who rose from the ranks of Hudson Bay Company miners to become a notorious union busting Vancouver Island coal baron. Belshaw's figure is comparable to Tom Brooking's 20% figure for Scots among New Zealand miners. See Brooking Brooking, Tom. 1985. "Tam McCanny and Kitty Clydeside" - The Scots in New Zealand". In The Scots Abroad: Labour, Capital, Enterprise, 1750–1914, Edited by: Cage, R. A. 156–90. London: Croom Helm. [Google Scholar], '"Tam McCanny and Kitty Clydeside"'; and Belshaw, Colonization and Community. [39] The 1901 Census of Canada: BC District: Burrard no. 1, Subdistrict: Texada Island D1-6, p. 1, lines 12–15, http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/databases/census-1901. [40] Alexander Grant had emigrated from New Zealand six years earlier in 1891. See the 1901 Census of Canada: BC District: Burrard no. 1, Subdistrict: Texada Island D1-6, p. 2, http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/databases/census-1901. William Law Sr. would subsequently move to the Lucky Jim mine on Quadra Island to run that operation's steam engine, suggesting that he may have already possessed greater skills that most miners before he emigrated. William Jr. was born in Carrington, New Zealand in 1897. See The Fisherman, March 16, 1984, 16. [41] 'Bill Law, Herriot Bay, BC, to George North, Feb. 3, 1967', George North Fonds, Box 7–33, University of British Columbia Library, Special Collections; and The Fisherman, December 1, 1961, 1. [42] Vance, '"Mon He's a Gran Fish"', 48–9, 53. [43] When one looks across Canada it is not difficult to find Scots immigrants taking similar union leadership positions and indeed several Scots moved from such positions to play prominent roles in the Canadian socialist and communist political parties. 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